Angels and Joan Didion

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Of all the major cities in the United States, Los Angeles is, arguably, one the strangest. Resting near the southwestern edge of the United States, the city has not only determined itself to be the final resting place of many major interstates and highways, but has also awakened itself to the role of "dream-maker", producing the majority of popular films now embraced by the modern world. It sets the tone for the rest of the nation, with regard to fashion, the cultural norm, the socially acceptable, and provides the endless gossip and myth of its own movie icons. One day in Los Angeles crisply exposes the visitor to a concept of "aesthetic quality without real substance". Entertainment can be derived from eavesdropping upon conversations about current makeover trends, lavish retreats, or the scoop on "who's sleeping with whom". Joan Didion's 170 novel, Play It as It Lays, offers similar imagery through the visions of Maria Wyeth, a thirty-one year old woman whose exposure to Los Angeles culture ultimately leads her to an intricate understanding of "nothing". What is most striking about the text is how it achieves a tonality that rests upon "nothing" while vividly exposing the desolation surrounding the city, her friends, her lovers, and herself.

Unlike many novels, where dialogue exposes the design of the text, Play It as It Lays provides its answers through a discourse of the descriptive and metaphorical. The dialogue serves as proof of the "nothingness" in Maria's vision. After the plumbing in her house backs up, she sets about searching for an apartment to sleep in, encountering a building manager whose concern in not the stability of the dwelling, but the history it provides

"You'd be surprised at the history this place has," the man said as he showed her the apartment. He was wearing a pumpkin velour robe and wrap-around glasses and she had found him not in the apartment marked "Mgr." but out on the Fountain Avenue, hosing down the sidewalk. "As a writer, it might interest you to know that Philip Dunne once had -D"

"I'm not a writer," Maria said. Write your Angels and Joan Didion research paper

"Excuse me, it was Sidney Howard." He took off his glasses and wiped them on a sleeve of the beach robe. "Or so the legend goes." (8)

Here the action is not dependent upon the flow of the dialogue between Marian and the manager, but the description of him. The image the manager engaging a possible tenant in a "pumpkin velour beach robe and wrap-around glasses" and of Maria finding him "hosing down the sidewalk" instead of in his apartment as expected. The dialogue reacts against the backdrop of the descriptive. The conversation is about nothing of consequence, resting within an inactive state while the description of the manager remains active and vivid, determining the tone of the excerpt. Dialogue is secondary to the aesthetics of the situation. The condition of the apartment is not the important factor, but the history it provides; the concern is not so much the quality of the dwelling, but the aesthetics of the tenement.

The placement of the aesthetic quality in the forefront of Didion's novel is similar to the form achieved in Georges Perec's 165 Things, A Story of the Sixties. Much like Didion's achievement, the dialogue is sparse, however the descriptive element is far more exaggerated. The focus of Perec's novel is a French couple whose main concerns lie within the realization of social status, academic respect, and cultural enhancement. One way in which they believe this goal is achieved is through the attainment of belongings that exude a novelty or sought after quality. Whether or not they like what they own is of little importance. Value is ascertained through the approval of others. The novel avidly avoids any avenue of plot. Its main concern of the text is character development, using descriptions of "things" owned by the couple in order realize this effect.

There was washing, drying, ironing. Gas, electricity and the telephone. Children. Clothes and underclothes. Mustard. Packet soups, tinned soups. Hair how to wash it, how to dry it, how to make it hold a wave, how to make it shine. Students, fingernails, cough syrup, typewriters, fertilizers, tractors, leisure pursuits, presents, stationary, linen, politics, motorways, alcoholic drinks, mineral water, cheeses, jams, lamps and curtains, insurance and gardening. Nil humani alienum…Nothing that was human was outside their scope. (8-)

The list provided by this excerpt dissects the focus of their lives revealing insight into the lifestyle they lead, or hope to lead. It relies upon the action involved with description in order to provide the reader with a notion of their character. The random list of amenities and daily activities, such as the ways in which "hair" may be groomed and maintained, reflect the couples yearning for emotional fulfillment through the acquisition of property and maintenance of physical posture. The concern for the aesthetic aspects of daily living exists congruently with the couples awareness of the emptiness embodied by their own life. The narrative, without the benefit of dialogue, reveals the emptiness felt by the characters involved.

In similar fashion, Didion's novel reveals aspects of Maria's character through her interaction with the city and its people. Early in the novel the reader learns that one of the things she finds comfort in is driving

Once she was on the freeway and had maneuvered herself to the fast lanes she turned on the radio at high volume and drove. She drove the San Diego to the Harbor, the Harbor up to the Hollywood, the Hollywood to the Golden State, the Santa Monica, the Santa Ana, the Pasadena, the Ventura. She drove it as a riverman runs a river, every day more attuned to its currents, its deceptions, and just as a riverman feels the lull between sleeping and waking, so Maria lay at night in the still of Beverly Hills and saw the great signs soar overhead at seventy miles an hour, Normandie ¼, Vermont ¾, Harbor Fwy 1. (15-16)

As Maria succumbs to the "currents" of the freeway she finds a peaceful resolution within her world. The acquisition of this contented quality is emotive of Maria's character and her situation, in regard to others in her life, throughout the text. The act of driving becomes a metaphor for the way she approaches life. She does not posses absolute control of her life, allowing herself to flow along "currents" of others, attuning herself to their "deceptions" and decisions. Her encounter with the apartment manager later in the novel displays such a quality. The manager assumes that she is a "writer" even after she persists that she is not. She does not fervently oppose his assessment with any sense determination, but accepts it without resignation. The abortion she undergoes midway through the novel is not a choice that she felt comfortable with. The decision to have the abortion is ultimately left up to her husband, Carter.

"I'm not sure I want to do that," she said carefully.

"All right, don't do it. Go ahead and have this kid."

He paused, confident in his hand. She waited for him to play it through. "And I'll take Kate."

After he hung up she sat very still. She had a remote sense that everything was happening exactly the way it was supposed to happen. By the time she called him back she was calm, neutral, intermediary calling to clarify terms. "Listen," she said. "If I do this, then you promise I can have Kate? You promise there won't be trouble later?"

"I'm not promising anything," he said. "I said we'll see." (54-55)

Here the controlling figure is Carter. He is "confident" in his decision. Maria, on the other hand, succumbs to the flow of the moment, sacrificing herself to the "currents" possessed by the conversation. She does not offer any resistance to his threat to take her daughter, Kate, away from her. She relies on the feeling that "everything is happening exactly the way it was supposed to happen". Carter's dominance lies within his knowledge of Maria's character. He uses her loftiness to enact an ultimatum that forces Maria to drift along with his decision, placing himself within a position that does not require him hold "promises" but to dictate direction. Furthermore, Kate is resident at a mental hospital and visitations are strictly outlined. Maria's own access to her own daughter is dictated by the hospital and, again, she does little to change or control the situation.

Despite Carter's, and her friend's, impact upon her life she still remains fundamentally aware of, and "attuned" to, their transparency. The only freedom she truly affords herself is the realization of the emptiness and desolation that surrounds her.

"What have you been doing," Carter said the next time she saw him.

"Working. I'm going to be working very soon."

"I mean who've you been seeing."

"Nobody. Helene. BZ. BZ comes by sometimes.

"Don't get into that," Carter said.

"He's your friend," Maria said. (10)

The short chapter displays Maria's acute awareness of the people in her life. As Carter warns her not to "get into" a relationship with Helene and BZ she reminds him that he is supposed to BZ's friend. With one small sentence the text projects the shallowness of Carter's character and the value he places upon friendships. It is, perhaps, a cultural observation concerning life Los Angeles and the flippant attitude taken toward the acquisition, and disposal, of friends "…all is a symbol, every character is a statement that evil reigns, as real as sunshine. The center is not holding. Everyone in the book except Maria acts the pimp, the stud, the call girl, the pervert, the decadent hairdresser, the orgiast, the suicide." (Kazan, 14)

Short chapters, such as the excerpt above, serve as an informational anchor throughout the novel. The reader is exposed, more sharply, to the characterization of Maria, and others, through these concise rest stops.

When I was ten years old my father taught me to assess quite rapidly the shifting probabilities on a craps layout I could trace a layout in my sleep, the field here and the pass line all around, even money on the Big Six or Eight, five-for-one on Any Seven. Always when I play back my father's voice it is with a professional rasp, it goes as it lays, don't do it the hard way. My father advised me that life itself was a crap game it was one of the two lessons I learned as a child. The other was that overturning a rock was apt to reveal a rattlesnake. As lessons go those seem to hold up, but not to apply. (00)

Found near the end of the novel this chapter reveals much concerning Maria's character, her view of the world and how she approaches it, and makes a subconscious correlation between two cities Los Angeles and Las Vegas. Her memory of her father's lesson concerning the game of "craps" and "life" stand in parallel fashion, congruently existing with her astute observations of her friends and her approach to life. Just as she could "trace a layout" in her "sleep", she is able to avidly read the people in her lives, such as Carter and his attitude concerning Kate "She waited for him to play it through. 'And I'll take Kate.'" (54). Her father's professional advice of "…it goes as it lays, don't do it the hard way" reflects her own sense of loftiness, her willingness to succumb to the "currents" within her life. In her dealings with Carter she simply waited for him to "play it through" as if partaking in a game of craps. A correlation between Los Angeles and Las Vegas is also prevalent and provide the novel an interesting undertone that echoes the lives of its characters. Both cities provide the visitor, and the resident, with the "current" of the metropolis routine, Los Angeles with its continuous ebb of freeways and lifestyles and Las Vegas with its animation of momentary games. Las Vegas offers the individual the opportunity to lose oneself within a tangible river of gambling, bright lights, entertainment, and dreams while Los Angeles offers the same vices, shrouded within the intangible qualities of a Hollywood lifestyle. Both cities rely on a "current" of dreams and provide the character of Maria with a comfortable unison with which to engage her life.

Maria's vision of the world leads her to a keen understanding of "nothing". Her act of following the "current" of the Los Angeles lifestyles ultimately leads to intense feelings of disgust and ennui with world and the company she keeps. "Nothing", perhaps, encompasses her understanding of the aesthetic quality of the world she has known. There is no substance to what she has known and at the age of thirty-one she is only now discovering the evil connotations of the "currents" she had drifted along with. At the close of the book she looks forward to the simplicity of "canning" preserves. Her "understanding of nothing" has allowed her to "make plains for the future", finally gaining control of her own destiny (10). It is similar to Voltaire's Candide where the final realization of the novel encompasses the notion that significant change stems from the simplest of action. However, even this glimmer of hope is not without control from outside forces, as she makes her plans from a psychiatric ward.

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Religion And The Persian Empire

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Religion and the Persian Empire

From the time of hunter-gatherers, religion or some for of it has been the basis for social stability, structure and progress. Religion has given meaning to each and every person and civilization in the Ancient World, and the Persian Empire is of no exception to this rule. 5 B.C.E. marked one of the most influential and innovative periods in Mesopotamia with the introduction of the Persian Empire and its own personal religion.

5 B.C.E. marked the beginning of Persian rule and the end of Chaldean control. Before 5 B.C.E., Chaldeans saw little or no pressure from any exterior forces or entities. However, nothing is perfect. Having little outer competition, the Chaldeans were faced with an equally malignant situation from within. Being constantly consumed and distracted by war from with amongst their own people, the Chaldeans had many of the resources directed to curtailing this issue. Therefore, being tied up with inner issues, the Chaldeans were inevitably overtaken by the Persian Empire.

Once conquering the Chaldeans and taking Babylon, the Persians became the power of the Mesopotamian region. With this widespread control, they soon became to be known as the super power of the Ancient World. However, this power was brandished in a new way that would set them aside from the previous inhabitants of the land. The philosophy, backed by the King Cyrus, was to allow all provinces and civilizations to maintain their own, as long as they adhere to the rules and regulations of the Persian Empire. Under the leadership of Cyrus, the Persians introduced a religious philosophy that would change all of the Ancient World.

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The Persian Empire religious base was a crucially important factor in its success. The Persians introduced the first is what is now known as Axial religion. Axial religion is the belief that there is one universal god. This belief quickly influenced everyone throughout the Persian Empire.

The religion itself is based on stories about someone who may or may not have lived. The individuals name was Zoroaster and he was speculated to have lived somewhere near northwestern Persia possibly in the seventh century B.C. and possibly as early as 100 B.C. Opposing the ideals of the old Persian gods, Zoroaster proposed a belief that there is one god, named Ahuramazda, that should be coveted and adorned and subsequently wrote a book of preachings named Zend Avesta.

The religion sparked the birth of a dualistic religion. The dualistic religion believes that there is a heaven and hell and this philosophy invented new ideas and approaches in religion during this time. Using the idea of heaven and hell and the idea of light and darkness was new to all walks of life in the Mesopotamian area and thus it sparked many new influences and altercations in other religions.

The religion itself also sparked a subset religion. In Zoroastrianism, Mithras is the Persian god of light and wisdom. Mithras is an assistant to Ahuramazda and a right hand angel of the God. Soon afterwards and primarily on the western region of the empire, Mithras becomes its own religion. The story of Mithras reflects the story of Christ. Thus this reflection is proof that Persian rule during its time in Mesopotamia inspired changes and innovations through the Fertile Crescent.

In conclusion, the Persian Empire came into power with an ideology of live and let live. Introducing this philosophy, brought about prosperous times and set precedents unbeknownst to the ancient world. However, it's most apparent and substantial contribution to the ancient world came in the form of a dualistic, monotheistic religion that ultimately brought about new thinking and fresh ideas. With the introduction of Zoroastrianism, religion in the ancient world became influenced and as a result changed forever. Zoroastrianism birthed the Mithraism religion and eventually caused ripples in the religious foundations of each and every civilization to follow.

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What might happen

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To Whom It May Concern

We have just received your Statement of Deposit Allocation (attachment 1) in which you claim $680.00 for

damages, cleaning, and contract termination fees and penalties. This is concerning my 87 year old mother, ? ,

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and her tenancy in your unit 555g.

In regards to the damages and cleaning, the Inspection Acceptance form (attachment ) clearly shows the condition

of the apartment when she moved in on January 7, 000 and all the problems it had, which you never resolved. On

move in, we requested that handicap grab bars be added to the ground floor unit. This was never done because your

maintenance personnel said that the bathroom walls were not reinforced for future addition of grab bars. This is a clear

violation of Florida Accessibility Code for Building Construction. But instead of reporting you to the Florida Department

of Community Affairs, we absorbed the cost of providing removable grab bars in the bathroom and made no claims for

reimbursement from you, even though we were entitled to. On move-out, we throughly cleaned the unit and shampooed

the carpet. The attached Inspection Acceptance form shows clearly that on move-out, the unit was inspected and signed

off by you with NO discrepancies noted.

In regards to the fees and penalties for early termination, the contract restrictions on termination are designed to

prevent tenants from arbitrarily moving out whenever they feel like it. When you said to my wife that the only way

that my mother could get out of the contract was if she died, you showed both a lack of understanding of contract law

and a serious disregard for Florida tenants' rights legislation. Believe me, we did not want to move my mother to an assisted

living facility where she pays 400% more each month than your rent cost. We would have been happy to have left her in

your unit, in good health, taking care of herself. But her rapidly deteriorating health and her doctor's assessment that she

could no longer live unsupervised is what caused her relocation. There is legal precedent in Florida courts for medical

necessity.

If the security deposit of $00.00 is not returned to us, we will initiate legal action for recovery in a court of

competent jurisdiction. In addition, we will also seek to recover the costs absorbed by us in providing handicapped

accessibility in the unit. Finally, we will ask for punitive damages to compensate us for the mental anquish you have

caused us.

Sincerely,

(

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It is only the beginning

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This is only the beginning…

In this technologically advanced world of the 0th century, the 'United Earth Defence Force' is Earth's keeper of peace and also known as the Confederacy's Army. The UEDF thrives on keen youngsters who help expand their already overwhelming force for, supposedly, Earth's well being. During the Confederacy's reign, Earth waged war against the fiendish race called the Zarg that inhabited the planet called Char, approximately 600,000 light-years away. This war was fought for the precious minerals and gases that power our society. But our alien enemies do not base their technology on these minerals and gases; they use them for a different purpose, to feed their ever-expanding race. The Zarg are a race of different creatures due to different levels of evolution, but all appear bug-like with the attribute of an amazingly thick layer of natural armour. Earth was already fighting its own civilian war, a battle rooted in greed. Human greed has led us to initiate war against our long time guardians and creators, the Protess. These godly creatures have been watching over the Earth for many thousands of years, ensuring of our survival in this hostile universe. However based solely on our own selfish greed, humanity turned against our guardians for these materialistic resources. Maybe we were not meant for this universe; maybe we were just an accident that continues to plague this universe…

Long ago, when the universe was still young, the mighty Protess race gave birth to Humanity and the Zarg through genetic experimentation with their superior technology and their outstanding knowledge in genetic science. Humanity was their first creation, but was abandoned on a planet what we now call Earth simply because we were not considered perfect. For this reason they created another race, a species they did consider to be perfect, the Zarg. Although we were left to evolve over time on Earth, not all was lost. Not long after the Protess' completion of the Zarg, it was soon realised that this new species was too much for them to handle. The Zarg was created with the ability to adapt to its environment through forced evolution. Due to the Protess' repeated experimentation with this ability, the Zarg has grown to become a species to be feared. The Protess themselves fell victim to the Zarg's unsuspected wrath and broke free from the Protess' genetic experimentation, completely destroying the vessel they were held captive in. For this reason, our Gods, who once abandoned Humanity, have come back to watch over us, hoping that it will make up for their wrong-doings, for unleashing evil into the universe.

After the surprise attack on their creators, the Zarg brood had infested a planet not too far from Earth. A planet called Char, from the constellation of Sagittarius came to be their home planet. The surface of the planet Char is covered with craters and active volcanoes that frequently erupt without warning. Water is nowhere to be found due to the scorching heat of the planet's surface. The atmosphere is contaminated with dangerously high amounts of carbon that could kill a human being the moment he or she inhaled a single breath. This planet seemed incapable or sustaining life, but this is not the case with the Zarg. The extent of genetic engineering has made them practically immune to any environment presented to them. The harshness of the planet's environment pushed the Zarg race to evolve and adapt so that Char's environmental hazards were of no concern to them. They are a hunter-gatherer society without a conscience; survival is their only objective. As years passed by and resources were almost used up, another obstacle was placed in front of these barbaric creatures. They were forced to evolve again, only this time, to the condition of space. They have only one thing on their minds, which is to inhabit any planet that has resources they can feed on, even if it means slaughtering its inhabitants.

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The process of evolution for Humanity was very slow and painful, but our guardians ensured our survival throughout this period. In the world of the 0th century, mankind has united as a whole. The scientific breakthrough of a new source of energy brought the world together. This new source of energy that powers the world comes from a special mineral and gas known as the pseptic crystal and vespene gas found buried deep beneath the Earth's crust. High tech machinery and weaponry are the result of the discovery of these new resources. As time passed by and the precious resources quickly deplete as a result of human consumption, Humanity was forced to devise a swift plan to search for these resources on other planets. As this new way of powering the Earth through extracting resources on other planets became a daily routine, fate brought them to the discovery of the Zarg race. At this time, the Zarg has consumed many planets and are heading towards Earth with hostility. As gullible as humans are, it was a dream come true to finally meet intelligent life from outer space. This was until one entire human fleet last sighted in the Zarg solar system was reported missing without a trace.

The High Council from the Protess Home World made its most momentous decision since proceeding with genetic experimentation. It was to form an alliance with Humanity, which thereby defied the rule that disallowed interference with the human's way of life. With the rapid development of the Zarg Empire, there was little choice left for the Protess. If they do not form an alliance and destroy the Zarg, the universe would be at the mercy of the ever-expanding Zarg creatures. Humanity formed an alliance with the Protess after being promised supplies of their much needed resources if they co-operated. The truth about the birth of Humanity and Zarg was also made known to Humanity in hope that dedication towards helping the Protess would be assured. But this proved wrong. The opposite result occurred and hatred grew on the human side towards their creators for abandoning them, which completely blinded them of the tragic fate that will come to all if the alliance was not sustained. As the Zarg consumed each planet in its path, annihilating those who opposed them in the process, death drew closer and closer for the Protess and Humanity. This is the result of playing God and trying to achieve perfection. War has begun between three races that have brought the universe to its darkest period. This may be the end for those unlucky enough to be caught in the crossfire between these warring worlds. But for the bloodthirsty Zarg, this is only the beginning…

Alan T

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The Glass Menagerie

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On the mantle of the Wingfield apartment rests a faded photograph of the father who deserted his family because he "fell in love with long distances." Tennessee Williams' plat entitled The Glass Menagerie reveals the tragedy of a family whose members all along to escape their miserable lives in the same way that their father escaped his predicament.

The daughters name is Laura, she was a little self conscious of her self ever scense she was born she had this little limp but she made a big deal about it but no one ever noticed it. When she was in high school she liked this boy named Jim O'Conner. Jim would call her "blue roses." She liked Jim O'Conner and he was in her choir class and she gets late to that class every time because she couldn't get up the stairs fast enough and that is when she had to walk in front of the class and everyone sees her limp. Her limp isn't really that bad though.

The sons name is Tom, he has to work every day in a warehouse just to support his family on sixty dollars a month. Has this friend at the ware house that his mother wants him to ask to dinner to set up her daughter with a gentlemen caller. He asks and he accepts the invitation to dinner his name is Jim O'Conner, Laura's High school sweetheart. Jim is not a very good guy he always lies to his mother and tells her that he is going to go to the movies and he really doesn't he goes and smokes a "J" If you will. But in the end of the book/movie he leaves the house and moves in his own home just like in his fathers footsteps.

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The mothers name is Amanda, she doesn't really do anything she lives in the past all she can think about is when she was a young girl. She would all ways talk about how popular she was when she was younger and how many gentlemen callers she had and one time she had nineteen gentlemen callers at one time. And every morning she goes and wakes up tom with a "rise and shine." She wants Laura to follow in her footsteps and get a good education and have many gentlemen callers like she did. But she doesn't because of her defect.

In closing I had a good time reading this book and watching the movie I think that it had a great moral with the unicorn and all. It just proved that everyone is the same no matter what the differences are. Toms final decision is so difficult because he loves his family but he is sick of supporting his family and getting shit for it and he is fed up with it so I fell for the kid.

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Ms

If you order your essay from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on Ms. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality Ms paper right on time.

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heySocial structure is extremely important to people and everyday society. People rely on it. It is a necessity. And there are very specific aspects to this structure such as Status, master status, ascribed status, achieved status, role, role conflict, role set and role strain.

Status is the first part of this structure. Status is a place in society that a single person holds. A social position that an individual occupies (Macionis, 86). A single person can hold more than one status. This is called a status set. The status set is a name for all the statuses a person holds at a given time (Marcionis, 86).

There are several types of statuses that a single person can have. One particular kind of status is called ascribed status. Ascribed status is a status that one is either born with or happens involuntarily. An example of this would be a son or a grandson. These are statuses in which one has little to no control over. Another type of status is the achieved status. This status is almost self explanatory. It is a "social position a person assumes voluntarily and that reflects personal ability and choice" (Marcionis, 86). In other words, it's a status that a person achieves, such as a job, an award or even being an athlete. A third type of status that a person can hold is a master status. This has a special importance to a person's social identity and often shapes a person's entire life (marcionis, 86). This can be both good and bad. It could be something good like a career. Or it could be something bad like a life long disease.

Alongside various types of statuses, all people also have a role. A role is different from a status in that it is a "behavior expected of someone who holds a particular status" (Marcionis, 87). For example, if a man's status is a bricklayer, then his role is to go to work, lay brick and do any other things that his job entitles. People tend to have several roles, whether is be for one particular status, which is called a role set or simply have multiple roles for multiple statuses. But with multiple roles often comes role strain or role conflict. Role strain is "tension among roles connected to a single status" (Marcionis, 88). For example, if a man is the head manager of a restaurant, he wants to maintain a friendly working environment with his employees, but at the same time he can't be too friendly because he must keep the correct amount of distance between him and his workers in order to do his job correctly. Role conflict is somewhat similar to role strain, but also has a distinct difference. Role conflict is "a conflict among roles corresponding to two or more statuses" (Marcionis, 87). For example, the same restaurant manager, aside from his role of maintaining the restaurant, may have a wife and kids at home. In which case, he would have the roles of performing husband and fatherly duties. The strain of these responsibilities can create tension among roles, leading to role conflict.Write my Essay on Ms

Statuses and roles apply to everyone. In my case, ascribed and achieved statuses interest me the most. My ascribed status is that I am a son to my parents, a grandson to my grandparents, I am a United States citizen and I am a male. My achieved status is that I am a college student, a guitar player, a band leader and a boyfriend.

Along with my statuses, I have also had a conflict of roles (role conflict) many times in my life. The one that stands out the most is the time period of my freshmen year in college. At the time, I was attending school, working at a record store and working as a front man for my band. So my statuses were that of a student, an employee and a band leader.

My role as a student was to attend class, do assignments, study and hopefully do well. My role as an employee was to go to work and try to sell the product. As a band leader, my role was to write music, sing the vocals, play guitar, perform and attempt to keep everyone in the group happy.

Needless to say, all these things were very important to me and my livelihood. But having to lead a band and work a job on top of my first semester in college was creating a great deal of stress and role conflict.

Social structure is a very important aspect of people's lives, whether they are aware of it or not. In a sense, it is a foundation in which we build

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Utilitarianism

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Utilitarianism Vanessa Harris

1.a) What is Utilitarianism?

The dictionary definition of Utilitarianism is 'The doctrine that the greatest happiness of the greatest number should be the guiding principal of conduct.' When making a moral decision, we should look at the outcome of an action. Whatever brings the greatest happiness to the most people is the morally 'right' decision. It is a consequentialist principal where the majority rules. It is also relative as each situation is looked at differently and will have a different outcome. Utilitarianism is known as the theory of utility. The meaning of utility is usefulness. Each action is judged by its usefulness in bringing about desired consequences. The word utility was first used to describe a group of social reformers. They attempted to make laws and practices of use-useful to people.

It was Scottish Philosopher David Hume (1711-76) who introduced utility into ethics. However, he was not viewed as a Utilitarian. The well known phrase associated with Utilitarianism was produced by Francis Hutcheson. He saidWrite my Essay on Utilitarianism

"The nation is best which produces the greatest happiness for

the greatest numbers, and that worst which in like manner

occasions misery."

This is the basis of Utilitarianism yet, like Hume, Hutcheson was also not regarded as a Utilitarian.

One of the main exponents of Utilitarianism is Jeremy Bentham. He was an English philosopher who was particularly concerned with social conditions of his time. Oxford University saw him graduate at just 16 and become a barrister. He was responsible for the reforms of prisons, and education, influenced by the French and American Revolutions. Bentham, a strong atheist who was very much opposed to the monarchy wrote a book in 178 named 'The principles of Morals and Legislation'. He believed that all people should be treated equally and what is right for society relies on what makes the individual happy. Happiness is determined in terms of pleasure.

Bentham was a hedonist - pleasure seeker. His aim was to pursue pleasure and avoid pain. Pleasure is the sole good or intrinsically good, and pain is the soul evil or intrinsically evil.

"Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters,

pain and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do, as

well as to determine what we shall do."

The intent of this was to maximise pleasure. An action is morally right if it generates the greatest pleasure for the majority and the least pain. This idea of pleasure and pain is known as the Hedonic Principal. Bentham said that if you wanted to find out which of your actions would bring about the greatest happiness, then you could measure pleasure. The quantity of pleasure can be measured according to Bentham using the Hedonic Calculus. The following criteria are used for measuring pleasure duration, intensity, certainty, propinquity, fecundity, purity, and extent. It does not matter if an action goes against the law, at least the result will be maximum pleasure.

One of the earliest Utilitarians to live by this principle was Epicurus he stated that "Friendship goes dancing round the world proclaiming to us all to awake

to the praises of a happy life."

He believed that a good life was one with pleasure and the absence of pain.

The other exponent of Utilitarianism is John Stuart Mill. He had a strict upbringing having very little contact with the outside world. He was around intelligent people a lot of the time as his father's friends consisted of philosophers, politicians, and economists-one being Bentham. He joined the Utilitarian Society, which met at Jeremy Bentham's house this is where Mill became interested in the theory. Two of his important books were 'On Liberty' in 185 and 'Utilitarianism' in 1861. Mill wanted to modify Bentham's theory of Utilitarianism to make it more acceptable.

There were a number of things Mill did to change Utilitarianism. Bentham suggested that all pleasures were of equal value, no pleasures were higher or lower than others. This evoked criticism so the main point he made was that of changing qualitative pleasure to quantitative pleasure. He divided pleasure into two, higher and lower. The higher pleasures were associated with the mind, and the lower pleasures with the body. Once the basic lower pleasures of the body (food, water etc.) have been reached, we can then go in search of higher, intellectually challenging pleasures. Mill said

"Better to be a human dissatisfied than a pig satisfied;

better to be a Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied."

Mill also linked Utilitarianism with Christian morality. He connected the theory with the teachings of Jesus. He said that the 'ideal perfection of utilitarian morality' was abiding by the 'Golden Rule'-'Do onto others as you have them do to you.' This made many more people accept Utilitarianism as it linked with their religion. Rules were introduced into Utilitarianism by Mill. The rules introduced were ones that generally brought about the greatest happiness for the greatest number. For example, Mill argued that society needs the principal of truthfulness as it brings the most happiness on the long run.

There are three types of Utilitarianism, Act, Rule, and Preference. Act Utilitarianism is where you look at the consequences of each individual action and asses which brings the most good. Act Utilitarians like Bentham do not see the need for rules when deciding morality, each situation is different. Rule Utilitarianism does not look at individual acts but the usefulness of a rule in morality. Mill was an Act Utilitarian and applied rules that usually bring the most good to situations. Strong Rule Utilitarians never break rules, and Weak Rule Utilitarianism keep rules in mind yet are prepared to break them if necessary. Preference Utilitarianism is where the preferences of those involved are taken into account when making the decision. The morally right thing to do in any situation is one that satisfies most people's preferences.

Utilitarianism is used in many societies, especially in politics. We encounter it every time we make a democratic vote. Our government rule by majority without the consent of the minority. Right and wrong are relative to the people involved and the things that give them pleasure. Utilitarianism is there to ensure that this pleasure is present and is maximised to its full potential.

b) What do you consider to be the strengths and weaknesses of Utilitarianism as a moral theory?

As with all moral theories, there are strengths and weaknesses. Although they are both Utilitarians, Bentham and Mill disagreed with each other on some matters. Many different people have their own interpretations of Utilitarianism and some may not agree with the strengths and weaknesses but here are some of the major arguments connected with the theory.

The major criticism of Utilitarianism is that it is extremely hard to predict the results of an action. The outcomes of all situations are hard to predict, so how can we possibly apply the rule of the greatest happiness for the greatest number if we do not know who will benefit most? It is also difficult to decide whether an outcome is morally good or bad. People have contrasting opinions on what they think is right or wrong. It really depends on the person who is making the decision, a lot of pressure is then put on that person's shoulders. How can we define happiness? The decision-maker may have a different perception on happiness than others-causing conflict. "One man's happiness is another man's pain." Without an absolute definition of happiness, it is hard to arrive at a 'right' decision.

Different decisions may result in different kinds of pleasure. Is long term or short term pleasure more valuable? For example, when deciding whether to take an ecstasy tablet at a club. Taking the pill may give you a lot of short-term pleasure, but in the long term, it may cause more harm than good. Not taking the tablet would involve fewer risks and would avoid potential pain. Even here, you cannot predict the results of your decision, as there is no way of telling the effect the ecstasy has on you until you have tried it. Bentham would look for the long-term pleasures, as this is what Hedonists seek. Also, we do not know how long the result will last for. Hume argued for this statement

"The effects of an action form part of a chain that stretches into the indefinite

future. Here is always the possibility that a very positive result of an action

may subsequently lead to very negative consequences."

How do we decide which pleasure the majority would prefer? This refers to preference Utilitarianism where the action is taken that is most favourable to the majority.

The rules of Utilitarianism allow people to do things, which are usually considered immoral. This is the idea of "The end justifies the means". If an action brings about the greatest happiness for the greatest number, then whatever needs to be done to obtain this is just. This means that even serious rules are permitted, Often requiring the breaking of the law. Utilitarianism requires people to put their personal feelings and ties aside and act on the absolute rule of the theory. Prior commitments a person may have should not influence their decision, although when decisions need to be made quickly, the reflex action would be to act on human instinct (e.g. save their family).

Bentham's theory is suggesting that good and happiness are the same thing. G.E. Moore argued that moral terms such as good cannot be defined. It is wrong to define good as happiness as this is creating the naturalistic fallacy. He believed that by defining good, important aspects or meanings are missed out, so by not defining them, they stay as they are. Utilitarianism sees that everybody's duty is to do what is best for the majority. It is allowing for the well being of the majority to rule over the minority. Just because the majority benefit, it does not mean that the action is the morally correct thing to do.

Despite all the arguments against Utilitarianism, there are some valid points for the theory. It is widely accepted, many countries run by means of democracy. Our political leaders are elected through the ballot box, the majority overriding the minority. This however does not automatically mean that they are the most suited people for the job. Utilitarianism allows people to contemplate the situation before making the decision. This time prevents people from making hasty, unethical judgements, as it encourages thought before action.

The aim of the theory is to produce happiness and pleasure. These are two desirable things as Utilitarianism says that pleasure is the sole good and pain is the soul evil.

"Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign

masters-pleasure and pain"

A theory that promotes pleasure must be a good thing as most people see pleasure as desirable over pain. The intention of Utilitarianism was not to create immorality but to please to maximum number of people possible. Surely it is better for a hundred people to be happy than five. There are other ethical theories that have many rules you have to learn and abide by. Utilitarianism has one simple absolute which can be applied to all situations with a positive outcome. In times of difficulty, it eases people out of difficult situations. They cannot be blamed for making the wrong decision if they claim it was for the happiness of the majority

Prejudices the decision maker may hold are eradicated in Utilitarianism, as they have to stick to the main rule. There is some leeway for emotions in moral decision making according to Rule Utilitarianism. This strand of the theory allows respect for the rules that are created to better our society. Even these rules do not have to be kept all the time if you are a weak rule Utilitarian. Some people would see this kind of Utilitarianism more compassionate than Act Utilitarianism. One of the main strengths is that it prevents the few people that think they better the rest from dictating society. Utilitarianism acts as a good weapon for reform.

Utilitarianism is a theory that Christians can relate to. Mill brought it closer to the Christian church by introducing Rule Utilitarianism. This would be closer to the principals Jesus lived by. For example, it was against the Jewish law to work on the Sabbath but when people were in need, Jesus bent this rule and healed them. The largest connection Christianity has with Utilitarianism is the death of Jesus. He was crucified and died for the sins of mankind-sacrificing himself for the majority. However, Utilitarianism does accept evil where Christianity most certainly does not.

Philosophers like Bentham and Mill worked hard to produce a theory that could aid us make complex decisions with a desirable outcome. The different types of Utilitarianism make it easier to live by, yet it is hard not to let our emotions override our actions. Despite the many flaws in the theory, it is simple and easy to apply. Our legal and political system work by the theory and are not corrupt, so why shouldn't our morality?

Ethical Theory Mel Thompson

Foundation for the Study of Religion Libby Ahluwalia

Dialouge Robert Kirkwood

The Puzzle of Ethics Peter Vardy & Paul Grosch

A Beginner's Guide to Ideas William Raeper & Linda Smith

Concise Oxford Dictionary

Encarta Encyclopaedia

Please note that this sample paper on Utilitarianism is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Utilitarianism, we are here to assist you. Your persuasive essay on Utilitarianism will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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