Kazimir Malevich in relation to Organizational Communications

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The Push Towards the Subjective

a.k.a. Non-Objective

The corporate world is an ongoing fight towards individual rights and ideas working within the framework of a successful operation. Business is a well-oiled machine, but over the years people have realized that the individual parts have feelings. How do you accommodate these feelings while maintaining the machine as a whole? Therein is the fight and the progression. This fight for rights does not take place only in the working environment. Nor does it take place only in the home. Art is no different than the rest of the world. Kazimir Malevich believed that art was for the artist, not for the viewer.

Kazimir was born in Kiev in 1878. He attended many schools for painting and drawing in his early years. He began painting in the Impressionist style before experimenting with Fauvism. Years later he became a master in the Russian art circle of cubofuturism. It was then when he introduced his theory called suprematism. His idea was non-objective art. 'Beauty is in the eye of the beholder,' not 'beauty is beauty.' Art went from landscapes and portraits to ambiguous shapes and avant-garde colors. No longer did the viewer determine what was beautiful and what was to be painted. The decision now rested firmly on the shoulders of the artist.

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Saying that art imitates life in this situation would be incorrect. Life later imitates art. If artists feel that they are not free in their line of work then what hope is there for the factory worker? Art is freedom to express and explore. But that was not happening. The artists felt trapped. Artists united fore they had nothing to lose but their easels. A new movement took place. A new style of art was formed Non-objective. It was true freedom at last. An apple doesn't necessarily have to look like and apple. People don't necessarily have to look like people. Art was finally free.

With art now free, it would not be long until others wanted the freedom as well. These paintings inspired. They evoked a feeling of freedom and meaning. No one could say concretely what was beautiful. No longer was there a right or a wrong. Later in the world this longing for freedom and meaning would manifest in life itself. The world was soon to become a freer place for the workingman.

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Racism in Othello

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Racism in Othello

"Carolina, why do you always get called out of class?" I asked, "Oh, it's just a program for Hispanic students that helps me to keep my grades up so I can get a scholarship for college." She replied. Immediately I was angry. I wasn't angry because Carolina had good grades, but I was angry because that program was only offered to Hispanics. If somebody were keeping track of me, making sure that I had good grades, I surely wouldn't be here, at Butte College, this very moment. I understand that because she is Hispanic, it is automatically assumed that her family is poverty-stricken. What about me? My family certainly didn't have a lot of money, especially to send me to college. I just didn't understand.

Now, my understandings are much clearer. I have come to believe that because of the extensive racism in the past, it should somehow be made up for now. Although racism still occurs, there is now way to make up for what has happened in the previous years. At least if there is, giving money to students of minority families for school isn't the best idea.

Racism has been around for as long as anyone can remember, and will remain until the end of time. It goes way back to the Shakespearian days. In one of Shakespeare's well-known plays, Othello, racism is a strong subject occurring throughout the entire play.

Desdemona, the daughter of a sophisticated civilized Venetian senator Brabantio, marries Othello, a black soldier and nobleman of stature. Since at the time, blacks were not known except as slaves, this generates quite the controversy. A jealous, false, deceiving soldier, Iago, does everything he can to split Desdemona and Othello apart. He is the catalyst of all the destructive happenings within the play. Starting from the very beginning when he and Roderigo, a gulled gentleman, (Othello) approach the residence of Brabantio in 1.1. He uses crude, racist language to appeal to Brabantio's traditional beliefs, including such phrases as,

IAGO Even now, now, very now, an old black ram

Is tupping your white ewe!

Othello 1.1, P.6, lines 85-86

Iago even goes so far as to propose that Brobantio's grandchildren will be animals because of his daughter's base marriage with an 'other.'

IAGO…you'll have

your daughter covered with a Barbary horse,

you'll have you nephews neigh to you, you'll have

coursers for cousins, and jennets for germans.

Othello 1.1, P.7, lines 108-111

Since racial discrimination and persecution (Webster's) have been around for such a long time, it is thought that by now, it would have "died out." However, the subject is still as strong as it was when slavery was a broad topic. Racism is everywhere; in the workplace, at school, on the streets, in music, in literature, and on T.V.

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Density Determination, Melting Point and Refractive Index

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Introduction

This laboratory was designed to examine the physical properties of organic compounds. The three properties determined were density, melting point, and refractive index. Every compound has unique physical properties. In this laboratory the experimental results will be compared to the compounds actual cataloged properties, accuracy will then be calculated through percent error.

Theoretical Basis

One physical property is density. Density is the measure of mass per area volume (Density = Mass/Area). Another important physical property is a compound's melting point. The melting point or range is very useful when determining a compounds purity. If the organic solid is pure, there are no contaminants present, then the substance will melt over a very short range (1- degrees). If the organic substance is a mixture then the melting point will be lowered and the melting range extended. By plotting the different melting point on a graph one can see an obvious trend when working with a bimolecular mixture. The eutectic point is a point on the graph where the two curves meet, at this point the mixture of the two substances is combined is such a way that the mixture will actually behave as if it is a pure substance.Cheap Custom Essays on Density Determination, Melting Point and Refractive Index

Refractive index is yet another physical property. The refractive index is a precise measurement used to track the purification of liquid samples. When light passes through an organic compound it is bent, or refracted. The refractive index can be measured precisely to four decimal places. The refractive index is measured by the equation light velocity in a vacuum ÷ light velocity in the sample. This number will always be greater then one. The refractometer, the device used to measure the refractive index, utilizes a sodium line to visually line up the distance the light is refracted. This is what the n stands for. The sodium "D" line at 0 degrees C. If the substance is impure than the refractive index will be different than refractive index of the pure substance.

Procedure

Density

A 1 mL syringe was weighted and the result recorded. The syringe was filled with precisely l mL of Toluene. The syringe filled with 1 mL of Toluene was then weighted again and the result recorded. Density of the substance was then determined. This was repeated for compounds Ethylene Glycol as well as Cyclopentenone.

Melting Point Determination

A small amount of solid t-Cinnaminic acid was placed into a closed capillary. The capillary was placed into a system used to determine melting and boiling points. The sample was then heated to its melting point. The melting point as well as the range of melting were recorded.

A small amount of solid 6% Cinniminic acid- 7% Urea mixture was then placed into a capillary and inserted into the same heating device used to determine the melting point of pure Cinnaminic acid. The melting point and range were recorded. A total of seven different mixtures were melted and the temperature range recorded and plotted onto a graph to determine the eutectic point.

Refractive Index

A drop of Toluene was placed onto a refractometer cell, which was previously cleaned with Methanol. The refractive index was determined by lining up the bottom of the refracted light with the sodium line through the eye lens. Again this was repeated with Ethylene Glycol and Cyclopentenone.

Results

Density

Density = Mass / Volume

Mass of 1mL syringe = .5 grams (+/- .001 g)

Mass of 1mL syringe + 1mL Toluene = .8 grams (+ .001 g)

Mass of 1mL Toluene = 0.85 grams (+ .001 g)

Volume of Toluene = 1mL

Density of Toluene = 0.85 g / 1 mL = 0.85g/mL

Actual Density of Toluene = 0.866g/mL

Percent error = 0.8667g/mL-0.861g/mL

X 100 = .88%

0.861g/mL

Density of Ethylene Glycol = 1.108 g / 1 mL = 1.108g/mL

Actual Density of Toluene = 1.11g/mL

Percent error = .45%

Density of Cyclopentanone = 0.81 g / 1 mL = 0.81g/mL

Actual Density of Toluene = 0.51g/mL

Percent error = %

Melting Point Determination

t-cinnamic acid urea

100%0% 85%15% 71%% 6%7% 50%50% 5%75% 0%100%

1-18 4-118 8-100 88-100 85-8 -10 100-105

10-14 -108 110-15 100-10 87-100 110-10 18-10

100-10 105-11 80-5 6-100 14-16

11-1

A graph of the previous melting points can be found attached to the back page of this report. The Eutectic point was found to be between 50%-50% to 6%-7%. The actual eutectic point is 6%7% t-cinnamic acid urea.

Refractive Index

Experimental Refractive Index of Toluene n 1.47

Actual Refractive Index of Toluene = n 1.461

Percent error = .07%

Experimental Refractive Index of Cyclopentanone n 1.44

Actual Refractive Index of Toluene = n 1.47

Percent error = .1%

Experimental Refractive Index of Ethylene Glycol n 1.4

Actual Refractive Index of Toluene = n 1.41

Percent error = .07%

Discussion

All of the results found were very accurate. The small discrepancies between the experimental and actual values was due to human or mechanical error, or possibly even the contamination of the substance. It is most likely human error.

The melting point experiment proved to be just as successful. The pure solid, Cinnaminic acid, melted at exactly the theoretical temperature and range. When the impure cinnaminic acid was heated to its melting point, the melting range was longer by several degrees Celsius and the initial melting point lowered considerably. The melting point accurately displayed impurities in the organic solid. The eutectic point using the average of the experimental values was 50-50%. The actual point being at 6-7%. When drawing the graph lines, if the high numbers were used and the low values ignored then a 6%-7% eutectic point was achieved. There were groups that had consistently low melting points, this could be that the group lacked proper technique or they used a fault melting point machine. Certain mixtures may have also been cross contaminated by other mixtures in the area.

The experimental refractive indexes were all within a percentage point of the actual value. Although the number obtained through experimentation was close to the actual number cataloged, there was still human error. The refractive index is supposed to be an exact measurement to the fourth decimal place. The experimental value was only correct the first.

The physical properties of an organic compound can be easily determined and clearly show whether the sample is free of impurities and contaminants.

Conclusion

All of the physical properties measured in the organic compounds showed to be correct within one percentage point of their theoretical values. This laboratory was accurate, precise, and successful.

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Economics

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Economics

The Monetary and Fiscal Policies are the ways that our economy is kept under control. Both policies have their strengths and weaknesses, some situations favouring use of both policies, but most of the time, only one is necessary. The monetary policy is the act of regulating the money supply by the Central Bank. One of the main responsibilities of the Central Bank is to regulate the money supply so as to keep production, prices, and employment stable. The Central Bank has three instruments to manipulate the money supply. They are the reserve requirement, open market operations, and the discount rate. The most powerful instrument available is the reserve requirement. The reserve requirement is the percentage of money that the bank is not allowed to loan out. If it is lowered, banks are required to keep less money, and so more money is put out into circulation. If it is raised, then banks may have to collect on some loans to meet the new reserve requirement.

The instrument known as open market operations influences money and credit operations by buying and selling of government securities on the open market. This is used to control overall money supply. If the Central Bank believes there is not enough money in circulation, then they will buy the securities from member banks. If the Central Bank believes there is too much money in the economy, they will sell the securities back to the banks. Because it is easier to make gradual changes in the supply of money, open market operations are use more regularly than monetary policy. When member banks want to raise money, they can borrow from Central Bank. Just like other loans, there is an interest rate, or a discount rate, the third instrument of the monetary policy. If the discount rate is high, then fewer banks will be inclined to borrow, and if it is low, more banks will borrow from the reserve banks. The discount rate is not used as frequently as it was in the past, but it does serve as an indicator to private bankers of the intentions of the Central Bank to constrict or enlarge the money supply.

The monetary policy is a good way to influence the money supply, but it does have its weaknesses. One weakness is that tight money policy works better that loose money policy. Tight money works on bringing money in to stop circulation, but for loose policy to really work, people have to want loans and want to spend money. Another problem is monetary velocity. The number of times per year a Euro changes hands for goods and services is completely independent of the money supply, and can sometimes contradict the efforts of the Central Bank. The benefits of the monetary system are that it can be enacted immediately with quick results.

The second way to influence the money supply lies in the hands of the government with the Fiscal Policy. The fiscal policy consists of two main Instruments. The changing of tax rates, and changing government spending. The main point of fiscal policy is to keep the surplus/deficit swings in the economy to a minimum by reducing inflation and recession. A change in tax rates is usually implemented when inflation is unusually high, and there is a recession with high unemployment. With high inflation, taxes are increased so people have less to spend, thus reducing demand and inflation. During a recession with high unemployment, taxes are lowered to give more people money to spend and thus increasing demand for goods and services, and the economy begins to revive. A change in government spending has a stronger effect on the economy than a change in tax rates.

When the government decides to fight a recession it can spend a large amount of money on goods and services, all of which is released into the economy. Despite the effectiveness of the Fiscal policy, it does have drawbacks. The major problems are timing and politics. It is hard to predict inflation and recession, and it can be a long period of time before the situation is even recognised. Because a tax cut can take a year to really take effect, the economy could revive from the recession and the new unnecessary tax cut could cause inflation.

Politics are another problem. Unlike the monetary policy run by the Central Bank, the government initiates the fiscal policy, and so politics play a key role in the policy. When the concerns of the government are viewed, it becomes obvious that a balanced budget is not the primary objective, anyway. The fiscal policy can also be used as a campaign tactic. If tax cuts are initiated and government spending is increased, then the T is more likely to be re-elected, but has first to deal with the inflation his tactic caused. Monetary and fiscal policies are what helps keep the nation's economy stable. With them it is possible to control demand for services and goods and the ability to pay for them. It is possible to manipulate the money in private hands without directly affecting them. The policies are simply a myriad of Instruments used to prevent a long period where there is high unemployment, inflation, and prices, along with low wages and investment.

In Ireland the fiscal policy is based on wage agreements and unions for management and workers to slow wage growth while increasing job creation. There is a ten- percent corporate tax rate in international manufacturing and service companies in Ireland. The policy also includes high government expenditures for education, training programs, and the physical infrastructure. Finally, reform of tax and welfare to increase work incentives centred on supply-side reforms focused on trying to increase foreign investment and increase the competitiveness of goods produced in Ireland in the international marketplace. The EU also provides investment in Ireland, largely to improve the infrastructure. This policy continues to help Irelands economy prosper. The real GDP growth for Ireland has averaged about nine percent since 14, and Irish incomes have risen by over two-thirds since the early nineties. Unemployment has gone down drastically from 16 percent in 1 to below six percent in 1. This is due partly to former emigrants moving to Ireland and joining the labour force. The reduction in unemployment problems has, however, led to other problems brought about by such a fast growing economy. These include shortages of skilled and unskilled labour and overcrowded roads and houses.

Participating in the EMU has taken away Irish control of monetary policy and has thus moved the governments focus to fiscal policy. A main fiscal policy used by the government has been to cut income tax in exchange for relatively stable wages to increase employment. Now, as the economy is moving toward full employment, they hope to move toward more flexible union pays policy while still giving tax cuts to low and medium income earners. Monetary policy is under control of the European Central Bank. The Irish central bank still exists to implement the common European monetary policy through actions such as adjusting liquidity at the ECB set interest rate. Since 1, price stability has been a goal of the EMU. There is a yearly zero to two- percent increase in the consumer price index. The European Central Bank operates its monetary policy through buying and selling government securities. Ireland accounts for only one percent of economic activity among the Euro countries.

The Central Bank of Ireland came into being in 14 following the passing of the Central Bank Act 14. It replaced the Currency Commission, which functioned as the national currency issuing authority from 17 to 14. The Bank is now a member of the European System of Central Banks (ESCB) whose primary objective is the maintenance of price stability in the Euro area. The maintenance of price stability is also enshrined in the Central Bank Act, 18. The basic tasks of the ESCB are to define and implement the single monetary policy; to conduct foreign exchange operations; to hold and manage the official foreign reserves of the Member States; and to promote the smooth operation of the payment systems. The ESCB is also called upon to contribute to the smooth conduct of policies relating to the prudential supervision of credit institutions and the stability of the financial system.

The Governing Council of the European Central Bank is the central decision-making body in charge of monetary policy for the Euro area. The Governor of the Central Bank of Ireland is one of the 18 members of the Governing Council. The implementation of monetary policy decisions rests with the Euro system, comprising the ECB and the national central banks of the 1 member states, which have adopted the Euro. The Bank's other tasks include acting as agent for and banker to the Government. The Bank is statutorily responsible for the supervision of most financial institutions in Ireland including banks, building societies and a broad range of non-bank firms, exchanges and collective investment schemes. The Bank reports annually on its activities to the Minister for Finance, and a statement on the Bank's annual accounts, as audited by the Comptroller and Auditor General, is also published.

The Governor of the Central Bank appears before joint committees of the Oireachtas when requested. The Bank's Annual Report and Quarterly Bulletins, together with the Bank's Monthly Statistics, are a primary source of banking and related financial statistics on the Irish economy. Ireland is one of the member countries that now use the single European currency, the Euro. On January 1, 1, use of this new currency went into effect. The transition to a single currency has affected both the macroeconomic performance and policy of Ireland. There is strong control of public spending which reduces the need for government borrowing and increased taxes.

Irelands macroeconomic policy and performance must be formulated to fit the goals of the European System of Central Banks. The ESCBs objectives include balanced development of economies, growth without inflation, convergence, increased employment, elevating standard of living..The transition to the Euro has moved Irish policy focus from monetary to fiscal policy. The fiscal programs instituted by the government will hopefully allow Ireland to reach these goals.

The unemployment rate in Ireland has been declining due to the fiscal policies aimed at boosting employment. This lower unemployment rate is a result of Irelands efforts to improve their output and efficiency to meet standards for joining the EMU. The short-term interest rates have been declining. This encourages investment spending and boosts GDP. Irelands interest rates are affected by their involvement in the EU.The Irish Government has improved its fiscal policy and has moved out of a deficit and into a surplus. The 1 figure represents the planned budget, not the actual result. This change, from a deficit to a surplus, represents increased effort by the government to improve the economic conditions.

The Maastricht Treaty mentions EMU and refers to it together with the Single Market as one of the means by which the Union will promote economic and social progress that is balanced and sustainable. The treaty refers to the fixing of a single currency, the ECB, and a single monetary policy and exchange rate policy. The first stage began on 1 July 10 with the removal of exchange controls in 8 of the then 1 Member States, the inclusion in principle of all currencies in the narrow band of the Exchange-Rate Mechanism (ERM), and measures to encourage convergence. No new institutions were required. The second stage began on 1 January 14, with the newly created European Monetary Institute (EMI), based in Frankfurt, gradually assuming a coordinating role. Those countries that qualified undertook stage of EMU in early 1. At the beginning of Stage the participating states adopted the irrevocably fixed rates at which the Euro was to be substituted for national currencies. Stage also entailed the creation of a European System of Central Banks (ESCB), composed of the European Central Bank (ECB) and representatives of the national central banks.

The EMU gives birth to a market as big as the United States and backed by a single currency. It represents twenty percent of world economic output and eighteen percent of world trade. The Euro has quickly lead to huge capital flows in Ireland, making the Irish firms more competitive in the global marketplace. Businesses will save money; the costs of changing currencies from country to country will be sharply reduced. Comparing prices are quicker and interest rates are stabilised. All this will make long-term planning easier. The member countries are Austria, Belgium, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal and Spain.

On 1 January 00 Euro notes and coin were put into circulation in all Euro zone countries and the process of withdrawing national currency notes and coins began. In Ireland the dual circulation period, during which both currencies were to be legal tender, lasted from 1 January 00 to February 00. During the dual circulation period retail outlets had to accept both Irish pounds and Euro but gave change as far as possible in Euro only. Following the removal of legal tender status from Irish pound notes and coins was on midnight on February 00, retailers were no longer be obliged to accept Irish pound cash as a means of payment. Bank of Ireland continued to accept Irish pound cash for a period after this date.

The value of the Euro was determined by economic conditions in the Euro area and particularly by maintaining price stability. Countries will only be allowed to join Economic and Monetary Union when their economic conditions have converged toward those in the Euro area so that their entry should not impact significantly on the value of the Euro. During the three-year transition period, 1-00, European companies converted their accounts to Euro. Then, in 00, Euro notes and coins were circulated in the different countries. In May 18, bilateral exchange rates between participating currencies were introduced.

Since World War II, Europe has been moving toward integration and with the creation of the Euro, they have made a giant step toward uniting Europe. The Euro will have immediate benefits. People travelling or simply shopping among participating European nations will immediately benefit from being able to compare prices for similar goods without needing a calculator. Not only will the exchange rate become irrelevant, but the costs of converting between currencies will also be eliminated. Because of the savings related to currency conversions, one-third of firms expects short-term earnings gains from the introduction of the Euro, and three-quarters expect long-term benefits to the bottom line. The Euro will make life easier for the people of Europe.

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Revenge in the play Medea

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When Juvenal said, For revenge is also the delight of a mean spirit, of a weak and petty mind! You may immediately drawproof of this- - that no one rejoices more in revenge than a woman. He was wrong. Medeas violent act of killing her own children in the play Medea, was without a doubt brought on by her husband Jason, who was the one that committed the act of revenge.

In the times of Medea and Jason, women were thought to be feeble minded, and only good for two things child bearing and housework. With the myth of Medea comes a story that changed the whole perception of the common woman. Instead of being ignorant

and helpless, Medea saved the life of Jason, and ultimately brought him his victory on a silver platter. It could be argued that

Jason was the one that had to go through all the fighting and danger, but Medea was the brains of the group, and no one couldOrder custom research paper on Revenge in the play Medea

argue that she was not the hero of the story.

People throughout the land that Jason and Medea lived in could probably tell that she had the upper hand in the relationship, and

they couldnt perceive that as a good thing. To them, Jason was a weak man, who was being controlled by an even weaker thing a

woman. Jason could probably tell that he wasnt getting the proper respect that he deserved, and became resentful of Medea for

being such a strong minded, natural born leader, and causing him to be the laughingstock of Corinth. In his mind, no woman was

supposed to control him, and so he plotted a revenge on her by choosing to destroy her self-confidence and gain respect at the

same time. His way of doing this was by leaving her and marrying a younger woman, therefore causing Medea to come running back to

him, and attaining a trophy wife, who happened to be a princess. It worked. Medea was thrown into a fit, and Jason was engaged to

be married to the princess, which he explained to Medea as a way to further their status.

I wanted to bring up the children in a style worthy of my house, and, begetting other children .to bring them all together and

unite the families. Then my happiness would be complete.(Euripides, 44)

Anyone who is smart knows that Jason is lying, and that he really isnt trying to give Medea and the children a better life. He

just wants to improve his own self with a pretty wife that does everything he pleases. He finds the way that Medea acts with him

to be outlandish, and because many people thought that people from other countries were backwards, he might have even started to

feed into their thoughts, and believe she was barbaric.

Euripides should have chosen to break all stereotypes with his story, but with all the positive things being said about a woman,

there was no way that the men that were reading this story could understand it. Few of them had probably ever seen or met a woman

of this caliber, and thought that it was all a bunch of made up garbage. To be reviewed as a good author, Euripides had to offset

the obvious heroism of Medea with a gruesome ending, which is her killing her two children. How and why he did this is actually

very interesting. If you look into history a little bit more, you will find that Medea actually had 14 children, and after she

killed Cruesa, the princess that Jason was to marry, Creon killed 1 of her children and hung them in the marketplace for

everyone to see. Even after four hundred years, tourists refused to visit Corinth, Euripides was hired to write a version in

which Medea killed her own children. This version was widely spread, and many people actually did start to visit Corinth

because of this alteration of history.

Medea was in fact, not the one that committed the act of revenge. She was a strong willed woman that contrary to social belief,

ran her household, and threatened her husbands reputation by putting him in a position that he couldnt rule. This is why he

planned to cast her to the side and rid himself of her, because he was getting her back for making him look like a coward. Jason

is the one with the Weak and petty mind. and the one that ultimately rejoices in the revenge. He loves to see Medea begging him

to take her back, and wondering why she cant stay in Corinth with her children. This is why Medea was looked down upon, because

she was the man in the story. She was the hero, and the one who ultimately won out in the end. In this story, the victory that

was usually given to the men was given to her, and that is what provoked Jason in his spiteful revenge plot.

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Stephen F. Austin

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Stephen F. Austin

Stephen Fuller Austin was born November rd 17 in Austinville, Virginia. At age five his family moved to Missouri. Austin attended school in Connecticut and graduated with honors from Transylvania University in Kentucky.

Prior to coming to Texas Austin worked in his father's general store and eventually took over the management of the family mining business. Austin served as a director of a failed bank, militia officer, and was a member of the Missouri territorial legislature. In 181 the governor of Arkansas appointed Austin as a circuit judge.

It was Austin's father who took the first steps toward establishing an American colony in Mexican Tejas. Though not thrilled with his father's idea he decided to cooperate. Moses Austin traveled to San Antonio in 180 to petition for a land grant. Approval was received in 181 for three hundred American families to settle on two hundred thousand acres. But Moses Austin died before being able to complete his plans and the responsibility of establishing the colony fell to Stephen at age twenty-seven.Order custom research paper on Stephen F. Austin

The governor of Mexico allowed Austin to explore the coastal plains between the San Antonio and Brazos rivers for the purpose of selecting a site for the colony. Austin selected the colony site on the lower Colorado and Brazos rivers allowing for plenty of water to be available to the colonists. The town was called San Felipe de Austin and was a good place to live because the colonists lived in peace with one another, were honest in their dealings, and were generous towards strangers. Characteristics Austin required of the colonists were that they become citizens of Mexico, only those who planned to live in Texas could buy land, produce evidence of good moral character, and had to practice Christianity. The three hundred colonists who settled in Texas became known as the "Old three hundred".

Austin is referred to as the Father of Texas for the hundreds of families he brought with him into the state of Texas due to the poor conditions of the United States at the time. Austin believed that most disputes could be worked out in the Mexican system where he had mixed success. He was imprisoned in Mexico City by President Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna for proposing statehood for Texas and for inciting insurrection. He briefly commanded Texas volunteers during the Texas Revolution and then went to the United States to gain support for the Texas cause. Later he served as secretary of state in the government of the Texas Republic.

Austin devoted the best years of his life to the cause of Texas. He died on December 7, 186 at the age of forty-three. He was remembered as an unassuming man with a kindly presence, and was deeply respected by all.

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Lord of the Flies and heart of darkness similarities

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Similarities between the Characters

The novel, Lord of the Flies, by William Golding and the novel, Heart of Darkness, by Joseph Conrad have many similarities between the characters. Some characters have good intentions of saving people, and they are compelled to do good things. Other characters have bad intentions and are compelled by power and greed. Evil wants to defeat good in both of these stories. Marlow, from Heart of Darkness, and Ralph, from Lord of the Flies, each has something that gives them a drive to continue. The good characters are caring and nice, and the bad characters are evil and malicious in both stories. Also none of the characters have fear of each other, and they take revenge when they have been wronged. Furthermore, the good characters have the right ideas and intentions, and the evil characters are just there to create problems.

In both of these stories the evil people, the manager and Jack, want to defeat the good people, Marlow and Ralph. In Heart of Darkness, Marlow is trying to save Kurtz. The manager is against bringing Kurtz out of the jungle because he will lose his job to Kurtz. He even mentions horrible things like "Hang Kurtz." ( p1) In Lord of the Flies, Jack wants to take over the tribe and run the tribe his way, but Ralph understands what is best for everyone and wants things done his way. Ralph knows he needs to be the leader to get everyone to work on the plans that will help get them rescued off the island. Jack lusts for the power and the hunting which would come with him as the leader. Ralph wants to save the people on the island by keeping a signal fire burning in hopes it will be seen by a ship, thus saving them. Jack has no desire to keep a fire going and doesn't acknowledge the fact that they need one. This hinders Ralph's core idea for getting them saved. Like Ralph, Marlow also gets obstructed from doing the right thing. He wants to hurry up and save Kurtz. The manager, however, sees Kurtz as a threat to his job so he sets up obstacles to stop Marlow. He sinks the ship, offers no assistance, and refuses supplies that would help Kurtz's survival.

Another similarity between Heart of Darkness and Lord of the Flies is that the main good characters have a figurative crutch to lean on in times of despair. Ralph and Marlow have something that motivates them. "I've got the conch" (1 p17) is repeated by Ralph several times throughout the novel. The conch designates him as the leader and shows his superiority. Similar to the conch that Ralph owns, Marlow has the mysterious Kurtz to fuel him. The "sole purpose" of his journey is "talking with Mr. Kurtz." ( p4) Marlow longs to talk to Kurtz, so he stops at no cost to make contact with Kurtz. The conch and the yearning for a talk with Mr. Kurtz are necessary for the survival of Ralph and Marlow.

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Both of the stories have good characters that are considerate and kind, and bad characters that do wicked things. Ralph and Simon take care of the "litluns" () by giving them fruit and shelter. Jack forms a savage tribe and kills people. Roger throws stones and is mean to the "litluns." () In Heart of Darkness, Marlow feels sorry for the black people and tries to rescue Kurtz. The manager denies Marlow to contact Kurtz, and he denies supplies in the hopes that Kurtz would die.

None of the characters seem to have fear of other characters in both of these stories. Jack doesn't think twice about disbanding from the tribe, and the manager daringly tries to hinder Marlow's attempt at capturing Kurtz. Confrontations between Marlow with the manager and Ralph with Jack occur candidly. In both novels, they do not attempt to hide their dislike for each other, and their hatred of other characters is obvious. In Heart of Darkness, Marlow knew of the manager's hatred towards Kurtz, by overhearing a conversation about how manager didn't want him to go and get Kurtz. He did anyway, blatantly defying the manager. In return, the manager did everything in his power to stop Marlow. In Lord of the Flies, Jack knew that leaving the tribe for the hunt was the wrong thing. He left anyway right in front of Ralph. Also, Piggy knew the savage tribe was stronger than him and he still went there and said, "Give me my glasses; I'm going to say you got to!" (1 p156) These are the key examples of how the characters have no fear of confronting other characters.

Another similarity the characters in these two stories have in common is the fact that the characters seek revenge. In Lord of the Flies, Jack is very jealous of Ralph because Ralph was chosen to be chief over him. Jack in the end refuses to accept this, and he gets back at Ralph by forming his own tribe. In the end Jack seeks the ultimate revenge by trying to have Ralph killed. In Heart of Darkness, the manager was jealous of Kurtz's rising popularity and power. The manager needed to seek revenge because he thought that the company officials were going to fire him and replace him with Kurtz. The manager thinks "the influence" that Kurtz has is "frightful," ( p8) so he sinks the steamer and denies Kurtz supplies, hoping that Kurtz will die.

The final similarity is the relationship between the good characters and the bad characters in each novel. The good characters are on the right path and have good intentions and goals. The evil characters are just there to create problems and because of their greed and jealousy, they mess up the situation. In the Lord of the Flies, Piggy and Ralph say to the savage tribe that "the fire" is the only possibility of "rescue." (1 p17) This is the correct solution to solve the fact that they are stranded. All Jack says in return is "I gave you food, and my hunters will give you protection from the beast."(1 p17) This shows his ignorant view that ruins their chances of being rescued. In Heart of Darkness, Marlow needs rivets to repair the steamship needed for his rescue of Kurtz. He knows that the manager won't give him any. He shows this by saying "we shall have rivets" and doing a little "jig." ( p6) The manager, driven by greed and fear, is purposely causing problems that make Kurtz's rescue impossible.

In conclusion, there are many similarities between the characters of the novels, Lord of the Flies and Heart of Darkness. Evil wants to defeat good in both of these stories. Marlow, from Heart of Darkness, and Ralph, from Lord of the Flies, have something to give them a drive to continue. Both stories have good characters that must deal with the evil in others. Also, the characters are fearless and take revenge when they have been wronged. Finally, the good characters have the right ideas and intentions, and the evil characters are just there to create problems. Jack and the manager are the evil characters and Marlow, Piggy, and Ralph are the good characters.

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Comparison of Beowulf and The Odyssey

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After reading Beowulf and The Odyssey I began to compare and contrast the two epics. There are lots of obvious differences and similarities. An obvious similarity is there are heroes in both of these epics. The settings in both epics are similar too. The characters in both are different in many ways though. So the next few paragraphs you will learn the main similarities and differences of these two epics.

Beowulf is an Anglo-Saxon epic that puts good against evil. It puts Beowulf against Grendel and Grendel's mother and in the end Beowulf comes out on top. He fought and beat both Grendel and Grendel's mother. In The Odyssey all the survivors of the Trojan War had returned home except Odysseus. He was at Calypso's island and she wouldn't let him leave. When he finally got to leave he face many problems getting home because Poseidon, god of the sea, was angry with him. In both epics there are several problems that the hero's face and overcome. In Beowulf it is Grendel and his mother and in The Odyssey the main problems were the gods being angry with Odysseus.

While both The Odyssey and Beowulf examples of heroism, Beowulf's acts of being a hero actually fit the description of a hero more than Odysseus. Beowulf has many heroic qualities that are easy to see. One of his major heroic qualities is his strength during the battle with Grendel. Beowulf also shows many other qualities that prove him to be a great warrior and leader. In the Odyssey, Odysseus shows different qualities of being a hero. The battles that he is in are not ones he has gone out looking for, it seems like most of his battles are some kind of revenge from the gods. Beowulf usually goes and faces the bad guys head up but Odysseus sometimes used a little more trickery like when he fought the Cyclops. He waited until the Cyclops was asleep then blinded him and escaped. So Odysseus had somewhat of an unfair advantage. But in both epics Beowulf and Odysseus both show and have good qualities of a hero such as good leadership and being a warrior.

Beowulf takes place in Denmark and Sweden in the Dark Ages. The approximate date is between 500A.D. and 700 A.D. A specific place that Beowulf takes place is probably Northumbria, an important Anglo-Saxon kingdom between Scotland on the north and the Humber River on the south. Northumbria was home to monks who excelled in learning and literature. The Odyssey takes place in the same time period as Beowulf did. Odysseus home was Ithaca and he was always trying to get back home from where he sailed. He always had problems getting back home though because very few of the gods helped him. It was like they were all against him. In both epics the heroes were away from home and in the end they both returned to their home heroes.

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In both epics there were a lot of major themes. In the Odyssey home and wandering were a couple of the main themes. Odysseus was always away from his home and was always trying to get back home. While he was trying to get back home he was wandering a lot. Another theme is disguise. Odysseus was always good at disguising himself. The main theme that was in both The Odyssey and Beowulf is heroism. Both Odysseus and Beowulf were heroes in these epics. One other theme in Beowulf is Christianity and fate. Beowulf and Hrothgar both give praise to God for the defeat of Grendel. Beowulf also puts his trust in God also.

In both epics there would be bunches of special effects. In both the settings and background would have to be special effects. Clothing would be another big special effect that would be important. In Beowulf Grendel and his mother would also be some important special effects. In The Odyssey the Cyclops would be a special effect. In both epics the battles would also have to be special effects. For both epics a major part of them would have to be special effects.

In conclusion there are many differences in The Odyssey and Beowulf. But there are also a few similarities in the two epics. A big thing that is similar is that in both epics there would have to be lots of special effects. The settings of both are also somewhat similar also. The characters in both have lots of the same qualities but are also very different in many ways. Both epics were great to read and it was good to compare and contrast them.

Please note that this sample paper on Comparison of Beowulf and The Odyssey is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Comparison of Beowulf and The Odyssey, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college paper on Comparison of Beowulf and The Odyssey will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Psychology - Conflict

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Introduction

Conflict is the clash of activities, feelings or intentions occurring together, expressed through a range of either verbal denigration to that of physical violence to a person or property. Morton (17) defines it as existing "when incompatible activities occur", resulting in making the second activity "less likely or effective".

Literature Review

Early psychologists argued that conflict is caused by an innate instinctual or biological mechanism, which would predispose humans towards aggression. This gave way to more sophisticated and scientific hypotheses over time. One important development was the Frustration-Aggression theory.Order custom research paper on Psychology - Conflict

Frustration-Aggression theory (F-A theory)

In 1, Dollard, Doob, Miller, Mowrer, and Sears published a monograph on aggression in which they presented what has come to be known as the frustration-aggression hypothesis (F-A). Dollard et al. posited that the occurrence of aggressive behavior always presupposes the existence of frustration and, contrariwise, that the existence of frustration always leads to some form of aggression. Frustration, in this context, was specified as the thwarting of a goal response, and a goal response, in turn, was taken to mean the reinforcing final operation in an ongoing behavior sequence. At times, however, the term frustration is used to refer not only to the process of blocking a persons attainment of a reinforcer but also to the reaction to such blocking. Consequently, being frustrated means both that ones access to reinforcers is being thwarted by another party (or possibly by particular circumstances) and that ones reaction to this thwarting is one of annoyance.

Dollards hypotheses use Freuds ideas about his psycho-dynamic explanations, which indicate that humans are born with an instinct drive to aggress and destroy and this aggressive energy must be released. Aggression was meant to protect and is aimed outwards but it can also be released through activities like competition.

The questions that this theory raise are does all frustration lead automatically to aggression, and can all aggression and conflict be traced to some catalytic frustration? These questions, as well as the challenge of insufficiency of causal link to aggression, and other insights into human behaviour have lead to the discrediting of the Frustration-Aggression theory and the subsequent development of the Social Learning theory.

A revised version of the F-A theory, the Aggression Cue theory (Berkowitz, 158) emphasized frustration or attack as "important antecedents of aggression, and the presence of aggressive cues for the elicitation of aggression". He believed that both the innate and external factors (Learning theory) play a big role whether aggression occurs or not. If aggression is shown as a result of frustration also depends on many factors, like how close we are to reaching our goal and whether the frustration is a long-term or a short-term one and the number and intensity of frustrations that occur together.

Classical Conditioning takes place when an unconditional and conditional stimulus are paired together the individual may learn to respond to the conditional stimulus when it is presented alone; Berkowitz thought that something (e.g. weapon) can become associated with aggression and may act as a cue, so it triggers an aggressive response.

Implications of F-A theories

Young Singaporean teenagers, at the age of 1, faced with changes, challenges and increased responsibilities, a heavier curriculum plus CCAs may experience a 'block' in their pursuit to attain these goals, which will lead to a dis-equilibrium and thus causing them to display aggressive behaviours.

When teenagers are inexperienced in dealing with unattainable needs and goals, they find that the easiest way to get rid of the frustration is to act violently against others who they blame for their bad situation (extrinsic drive, scapegoat device). Thus schools are left with the responsibility of dealing with a teenager's frustration, which ultimately and commonly, turns into aggression.

Perceptual Control Theory (PCT)

In the early 150s, William T. Powers made the brilliant observation that people behave to deliberately control many, but not all, of their own perceptions of the world. A person who acts on the world to control his or her own perceptions must affect parts of the world. As observers, we can see some of the environmental variables that the person controls. From our vantage point outside the other person, we see events and relationships and processes that would ordinarily vary, but that are controlled by the person, which is to say the person keeps those events and relationships and processes at some predetermined state or condition.

To explain how people control their perceptions, Powers developed control system theory (CST), which was the early name for what is now called perceptual control theory. The new name was adopted early in the 10s, to distinguish Powers theory from the many fallacious ideas that some people had come to call control theory. Powers said that people specify part of what they perceive happening in the world by comparing what they actually perceive against what they intend to perceive. If there is no discrepancy or difference (called perceptual error) between actual and intended perceptions, the person does not act to change the world; but if there is a discrepancy, the person acts to eliminate the error. People behave to eliminate, or prevent, differences between actual and intended perceptions. People behave to cancel out the effects of anything in the environment that disturbs the perceptions they are trying to control.

Perceptual Control Theory (PCT) explains a simple fact People act to control some of their own perceptions. They specify part of what they will perceive, then they act to make those perceptions happen. People also keep their specified perceptions from changing, by acting to oppose and cancel the effects of many things in the world that might disturb them and make them change. PCT helps us to understand what happens when one persons actions disturb another persons controlled perceptions. (Thomas W. Bourbon, 17)

Implications of PCT

PCT highlights that what is perceived may not be the problem, and the solutions that we as teachers come up with may not be effective because we are trying to change behaviour. For example, trying to control students by giving them rewards or punishment does not teach them how to think. Instead, the root of the problem must be tackled and students have to learn to think their way out of conflict, just as they have to learn how to think when they have problems with Mathematics or Science. In one of the strategies highlighted in the next section, students are given the responsibility for their choice of action(s), allowing teachers to move away from the traditional method of canning and chiding a student who has displayed unacceptable behaviour.

Strategies

Conflict Resolution

Teaching youth how to manage conflict in a productive way can help reduce incidents of violent behaviour. Conflict resolution education is a beneficial component of a comprehensive violence prevention and intervention program in schools and communities. It encompasses problem solving in which the parties in dispute express their points of view, voice their interests, and find mutually acceptable solutions. Conflict resolution education programs help the parties recognize that while conflict happens all the time, people can learn new skills to deal with conflict in non-violent ways. The programs that appear to be most effective are comprehensive and involve multiple components such as the problem-solving processes and principles of conflict resolution, the basics of effective communication and listening, critical and creative thinking, and an emphasis on personal responsibility and self-discipline.

Two common strategies for approaching conflict resolution can be identified (1) Peer Mediation and () Peaceable Classrooms. In both approaches, conflict resolution education is viewed as giving youth non-violent tools to deal with daily conflicts that can lead to self-destructive and violent behaviours. It is up to the school to decide how conflict resolution education will be integrated into its overall educational environment. The expectation is that when youth learn to recognize and constructively address what takes place before conflict or differences lead to violence, the incidence and intensity of that situation will diminish.

Peer Mediation Approach

Specially trained student mediators work with their peers to resolve conflicts. Mediation programs reduce the use of traditional disciplinary actions such as suspension, detention, and expulsion; encourage effective problem solving; decrease the need for teacher involvement in student conflicts; and improve school climate. By the end of the school year, schools reported less than 10 fights, a major decrease from their usual figures.

Peaceable Classroom Approach

The Peaceable Classroom approach integrates conflict resolution into the curriculum and daily management of the classroom. It uses the instructional methods of cooperative learning and "academic controversy". The programme shows teachers how to integrate conflict resolution into the curriculum, classroom management, and discipline practices. It emphasizes opportunities to practice cooperation, appreciation of diversity, and caring and effective communication. Generally, peaceable classrooms are initiated on a teacher-by-teacher basis into the classroom setting and are the building blocks of the peaceable school.

Studies on the effectiveness of the Teaching Students To Be Peacemakers program, a Peaceable Classroom approach to conflict resolution, show that discipline problems requiring teacher management decreased by approximately 80 percent and referrals to the principal were reduced to zero.

Responsible Thinking Process (RTP)

The RTP, based on the PCT, is a unique discipline process, which is both non-manipulative and non-punitive. It creates mutual respect by teaching students how to think through what they are doing in relation to the rules of wherever they are. This gives students personal accountability for their actions. The key component of this process is its focus on how students can achieve their goals without getting in the way of others who are trying to do the same thing.

When a disruption occurs in the classroom, the teacher will ask the student "What are you doing?" The student will then make a choice whether to follow the rule (which is to pay attention and not to make noise) or to go to the RTC (Responsible Thinking Class), where the student will receive counselling from a professional employee of the school. A student is given one chance only. By the second disruption, the student will be told "You have chosen to go to the RTC" and it is only under special circumstances that a maximum of chances should be given. The teacher will fill in a referral form and the student will proceed to RTC. Student movement will be checked. When a student chooses to disrupt in the RTC, he or she will be asked to leave the school, accompanied by a parent or guardian. Otherwise, the student will be asked to sit outside the office until the parent or guardian can bring the student home.

Implications for Singapore schools

The Reflective Thinking Programme (RTP) seeks to develop the student's ability to reflect upon their past actions rationally and objectively and thus manage their anger and frustration more effectively. It promotes sense of ownership by making students take responsibility of their misbehaviour, thus acting as deterrence to the better students and would undoubtedly help students who actually engage in reflective thinking to improve their anger management However, bearing in mind that most of the ill-disciplined students are recalcitrant and defiant and made of up of the NT students, the RTP may not have served its purpose well.

One of the advantages is that the RTP seems to work for the teachers teaching in the classes with poorer discipline as it removes the disturbing element/s from the class enabling the teacher to go on conducting the lesson undisrupted.

While the RTP relieves the teacher from spending precious lesson time disciplining them, the recalcitrant students sent to the RTP do not seem to benefit much from the scheme.

Firstly, the students sent are not interested in learning and thus the RTP serves as an escape for them from the class. They are more than happy to spend their time in the air-conditioned room for the whole lesson period. It has then become an incentive for them to misbehave in class and be sent to RTP.

Secondly, the recalcitrant students do not actually reflect much about their actions or behaviour that caused them to be sent out of class nor do they seek to improve their behaviour. While most adults are possessed with the ability to reflect upon past actions and learn from the past experiences, we cannot expect the students of that age to be able to do so.

The counselor is also unable to follow up on them too due to time constraint and lack of contact and proximity unlike teachers. Yet teachers themselves are forever short of time, and in the end, RTP only serves as a method that escalates bad conduct because students are not afraid of being punished in the end. They do not feel the pain and thus their behaviour or conduct does not change.

Students are expected to plan their solutions before they are allowed back to school or into the classroom, which could be with the help of teachers, parents or counsellors. Only after the school or the teacher whose class the student has disrupted, accepts the plan, then the student be allowed into the school or classroom.

Conclusion

The effective conflict resolution education programs highlighted above have helped to improve the climate in school and community by reducing the number of juvenile acts in these settings; by decreasing the number of chronic school absences, the number of disciplinary referrals and suspensions; by increasing academic instruction during the school day; and by increasing the self-esteem and self-respect, as well as the personal responsibility and self-discipline of the young people involved in these programs.

Young people cannot be expected to promote and encourage the peaceful resolution of conflicts if they do not see conflict resolution principles and strategies being modelled by adults in all areas of their lives, such as in business, sports, entertainment, and personal relationships. Adults play a part in making the environment more peaceful by practicing non-violent conflict resolution when minor or major disputes arise in their daily lives.

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Why Alfred Hitchcok's "Psycho" shook the world

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Why Alfred Hitchcock's "Psycho" shook the world

Alfred Hitchcock's "Psycho" is a film that "changed the world" first screened on 16th June, 160, in New York City, it achieved an immediate success. People queued for very many hours to see "Psycho's" first showings. Their enthusiastic word of mouth recommendations gave the film instant and positive publicity.

Alfred Hitchcock introduced new subjects into the film industry, which before "Psycho" had been avoided by filmmakers under government censorship and pressure. "Psycho" stretched many film boundaries and heavily influences today's film industry. For instance, "Psycho" used black humour so manipulating many millions who watched and continued watching "Psycho" into fear and loathing, which the horror movies that Boris Karloff starred in could not equal. Boris Karloff's mummy as a figure of fear does not begin to compare with Norman Bates. Thus "Psycho" marks a significant development in movies which entertained audiences by scaring them - and so changed the world.

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I think the fact that Norman Bates, at first sight, seems normal, unlike the old horror movies' mummies, monsters, mad scientists and vampires, makes Norman's warped cruelty seem so wrong and horrible. But, at the same time Norman's weird mentality seems to reflect aspects of today's dangerous, violent world in ways beyond the reach of the early 0th century horror movies. These films have been spoofed in the "Rocky Horror Show" and "Scary Movie" but I don't think filmmakers would find it quite so easy to spoof "Psycho". The world has not yet changed so much that filmmakers might lightly guy or ridicule Norman Bates.

"Psycho" breaks taboos since Norman's mother features as a force for evil not good her effect on his character lasts beyond death. Her corpse lies in state in a perfectly organised room. And, when Norman kills Marion Crane and Milton Abrogast he does so dressed as his mother. This frightening image of a frantic and murderous mother contrasts with wholesome comforting American mother figures that audiences expected. This feature, too, altered the world.

The dead Mrs Bates creates a frightening image of a woman controlling a male (her son Norman) even beyond the grave. I see Marion not only as an independent woman who has the courage and determination to rob her employer but also one so enterprising as to escape into the unknown with the money. In pre- "Psycho" movies men rather than women committed crime. Seeing women from this point of view represents a significant change. Ironically, I think Hitchcock intended audiences to view Mrs Bates, as she seemed in Norman's thoughts, regarding the beautiful Marion as a rival for Norman's affections. The fact that Norman does not plunder Marion's belongings, he carelessly chucks the money out, underscores the fact that Norman murdered Marion for very unusual, uncanny motives. This psychological delving not only justifies the movie's title but takes audiences into depths of the human mind not previously achieved; so, Hitchcock changed the world of movies for ever through "Psycho's" success.

Hitchcock achieved these revolutionary effects by using very clever techniques. For instance music heightens tension particularly in Norman's killing of Marion. Comparison of the effects created by this scene without sound track and with the music, produced very strong contrasts. I noticed the build up of tension in my classmates' reactions to the scene with music, compared to the much less suspenseful atmosphere when we watched the scene without the sound track. Clever camera work, especially involving mirrors such as when Marion packs her bags, examines the money in the car lot's lavatory and especially when she checks in to the Bates' Motel makes the audience imagine Marion's murder in the shower room with its savage image of flashing knives and the frenzied screaming and the thick slowly flowing blood must have made millions of stomachs sink in terror. Such intense audience reaction showed how "Psycho" changed the world.

I thoroughly enjoyed deconstructing "Psycho" particularly because such analysis made me understand reasons for my reactions as well as appreciating Alfred Hitchcock's artistry as a significant film director.

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Jim Crow Laws

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The year 186 was the time that the Untied States of America came down as a whole. Many people were hurt and confused by the Jim Crow laws. These laws were established in order or keep the blacks and whites separated in public places. Jim Crow laws made a huge impact on society in the 10's.

On May 18, 186, the U.S. Supreme Court considered the idea of "separate but equal," which was the base of the Jim Crow laws. This was the case of the Plessy versus Ferguson.

The United States Constitution did not allow many types of discrimination such as black people being mistreated. Therefore, the states worked around the rules to include Jim Crow laws without disobeying the United States Constitution. This made African Americans considered as the "lower class" citizens. Many people were judging the blacks because of their skin; they were not respected as human beings. They were also not entitled to vote in some states, take literary tests, or poll taxes. All over the South, "white" and "colored" signs went up. Trains, buses barber shops, schools, and other public places were segregated by law.

All black people were separated from the whites when using public transportation. To sit on a public bus was an immense ordeal because the

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black people had to sit in the back seats while the whites in the front. Martin Luther King and Rosa Parks are few of the many people who wanted to stop the racist segregation.

Jim Crow laws existed between the end of the formal Reconstruction period in 1877 and the beginning of a strong civil rights movement in the 150's. Jim Crow Laws have not just effected the African Americans; it effected the white people too. Some people liked the racism, however, some did not. "Jump Jim Crow" was the name of a minstrel routine performed by Thomas Dartmouth Rice beginning in 188 and widely imitated by other minstrel performers. Qualifications were often given up for whites through a Grandfather Clause. This allowed only men to be exempted from qualifications if their grandfathers were legally allowed to vote. Many whites were exempted, however no blacks were.

Many schools in the United States were also separating the whites and the blacks. The schools consisted of all black and all white schools. If a child went to school in the other races' area, that was illegal. A major setback occurred for Jim Crow laws in 154, when the Supreme Court ruled in Brown versus Board of Education and declared that segregated schools were unconstitutional.

It truly is a blessing that Jim Crow laws are not in the United States today. People should be accepted no matter what color, race, or religion they come from. Many people are still hurt and confused as to why it even started in the first place, I know I am.

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Themes In Pride and Prejudice

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Pride As said in the words of Mary at the beginning of the novel, human nature is particularly prone to [pride] (Volume I, Chapter 5). In the novel, pride prevents the characters from seeing the truth of a situation and from achieving happiness in life. Pride is one of the main barriers that creates an obstacle to Elizabeth and Darcys marriage. Darcys pride in his position in society leads him initially to scorn anyone outside of his own social circle. Elizabeths vanity clouds her judgment, making her prone to think ill of Darcy and to think well of Wickham. In the end, Elizabeths rebukes of Darcy help him to realize his fault and to change accordingly, as demonstrated in his genuinely friendly treatment of the Gardiners, whom he previously would have scorned because of their low social class. Darcys letter shows Elizabeth that her judgments were wrong and she realizes that they were based on vanity, not on reason.

Prejudice Pride and prejudice are intimately related in the novel. As critic A. Walton Litz comments, in Pride and Prejudice one cannot equate Darcy with Pride, or Elizabeth with Prejudice; Darcys pride of place is founded on social prejudice, while Elizabeths initial prejudice against him is rooted in pride of her own quick perceptions. Darcy, having been brought up in such a way that he began to scorn all those outside his own social circle, must overcome his prejudice in order to see that Elizabeth would be a good wife for him and to win Elizabeths heart. The overcoming of his prejudice is demonstrated when he treats the Gardiners with great civility. The Gardiners are a much lower class than Darcy, because Mr. Darcy is a lawyer and must practice a trade to earn a living, rather than living off of the interest of an estate as gentlemen do. From the beginning of the novel Elizabeth prides herself on her keen ability for perception. Yet this supposed ability is often lacking, as in Elizabeths judgments of Darcy and Wickham.

Family Austen portrays the family as primarily responsible for the intellectual and moral education of children. Mr. and Mrs. Bennets failure to provide this education for their daughters leads to the utter shamelessness, foolishness, frivolity, and immorality of Lydia. Elizabeth and Jane have managed to develop virtue and strong characters in spite of the negligence of their parents, perhaps through the help of their studies and the good influence of Mr. and Mrs. Gardiner, who are the only relatives in the novel that take a serious concern in the girls well-being and provide sound guidance. Elizabeth and Jane are constantly forced to put up with the foolishness and poor judgment of their mother and the sarcastic indifference of their father. Even when Elizabeth advises her father not to allow Lydia to go to Brighton, he ignores the advice because he thinks it would too difficult to deal with Lydias complaining. The result is the scandal of Lydias elopement with Wickham.

Women and Marriage Austen is critical of the gender injustices present in 1th century English society. The novel demonstrates how money such as Charlotte need to marry men they are not in love with simply in order to gain financial security. The entailment of the Longbourn estate is an extreme hardship on the Bennet family, and is quite obviously unjust. The entailment of Mr. Bennets estate leaves his daughters in a poor financial situation which both requires them to marry and makes it more difficult to marry well. Clearly, Austen believes that woman are at least as intelligent and capable as men, and considers their inferior status in society to be unjust. She herself went against convention by remaining single and earning a living through her novels. In her personal letters Austen advises friends only to marry for love. Through the plot of the novel it is clear that Austen wants to show how Elizabeth is able to be happy by refusing to marry for financial purposes and only marrying a man whom she truly loves and esteems.

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Class Considerations of class are omnipresent in the novel. The novel does not put forth an egalitarian ideology or call for the leveling of all social classes, yet it does criticize an over-emphasis on class. Darcys inordinate pride is based on his extreme class-consciousness. Yet eventually he sees that factors other than wealth determine who truly belongs in the aristocracy. While those such as Miss Bingley and Mrs. Hurst, who are born into the aristocracy, are idle, mean-spirited and annoying, Mr. and Mrs. Gardiner are not members of the aristocracy in terms of wealth or birth but are natural aristocrats by virtue of their intelligence, good-breeding and virtue. The comic formality of Mr. Collins and his obsequious relationship with Lady Catherine serve as a satire class consciousness and social formalities. In the end, the verdict on class differences is moderate. As critic Samuel Kliger notes, It the conclusion of the novel makes it clear that Elizabeth accepts class relationships as valid, it becomes equally clear that Darcy, through Elizabeths genius for treating all people with respect for their natural dignity, is reminded that institutions are not an end in themselves but are intended to serve the end of human happiness.

Individual and Society The novel portrays a world in which society takes an interest in the private virtue of its members. When Lydia elopes with Wickham, therefore, it is scandal to the whole society and an injury to entire Bennet family. Darcy considers his failure to expose the wickedness of Wickhams character to be a breach of his social duty because if Wickhams true character had been known others would not have been so easily deceived by him. While Austen is critical of societys ability to judge properly, as demonstrated especially in their judgments of Wickham and Darcy, she does believe that society has a crucial role in promoting virtue. Austen has a profound sense that individuals are social beings and that their happiness is found through relationships with others. According to critic Richard Simpson, Austen has a thorough consciousness that man is a social being, and that apart from society there is not even the individual.

Virtue Austens novels unite Aristotelian and Christian conceptions of virtue. She sees human life as purposeful and believes that human beings must guide their appetites and desires through their use of reason. Elizabeths folly in her misjudgments of Darcy and Wickham is that her vanity has prevented her from reasoning objectively. Lydia seems almost completely devoid of virtue because she has never trained herself to discipline her passions or formed her judgment such that she is capable of making sound moral decisions. Human happiness is found by living a life in accordance with human dignity, which is a life in accordance with virtue. Self-knowledge has a central place in the acquisition of virtue, as it is a prerequisite for moral improvement. Darcy and Elizabeth are only freed of their pride and prejudice when their dealings with one another help them to see their faults and spur them to improve

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Impact of Two Sociological Theorists on Society

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Impact of Two Sociological Theorists on Society

Morgan Alley

Sociological Theory

April 17, 00Write my Essay on Impact of Two Sociological Theorists on Society

Two theorists, Charles Horton Cooley and George Herbert Mead, use sociological theory to develop their views on the interactions and structures of society. Sociological Theory relies on evidence from senses and from the social world itself to arrive at its conclusions, it is an abstract, symbolic representation of, and explanation of, social reality, and a disciplined manner about the social world (Adams, Sydie 001, p1,4). Everyone uses sociology in some way of thinking when guessing why someone acts in a certain way, or why something happened, this is just a couple of things that we as people do everyday. Sociologist however, have more in depth thought and do more research, as well as gathering evidence to support these thoughts and then hope to present them in publications for society. Cooley and Meads views have made a significant impact, not only in sociological world, but also in the view of the world. Each theorist has made different contributions to society but, they also have similarities in some aspects of sociology.

Charles Horton Cooley, our first theorist, was born 1864, in Ann Arbor, Michigan the son of a law professor at University of Michigan. Cooley was inspired by William James, John Dewey, as well as Darwin, and the developments in German Psychology. Herbert Spencer also influenced him but fell away from his views, as did most theorists. Cooley suffered from ill health, and as a semi-invalid, he read extensively and indulged in "much day-dreaming" (Reiss 168). He was unenthusiastic about engineering, and did a graduate degree in political economy and sociology at Michigan

(Adams, Sydie 001, pp10,11). Cooley was making his contributions at the turn of the twentieth century with a main focus on the self and primary groups.

The self in a very large and interesting class of cases is the social reference that takes on the form of a somewhat definite imagination of how one's self appears in a particular mind, and the kind of self-feeling one has is determined by the attitude toward this attributed mind. A social self of this sort might be called the reflected or looking glass self

"Each to each a looking glass

Reflect the other that doth pass

(Cooley, 10, pp.17-185,

www.Pfeiffer.edu/~Iridener/DSS/Cooley/LKGLSSLF.HTML)

He felt that this looking glass self has three elements "the imagination of out appearance to the other person; the imagination of his judgment of that appearance, and some sort of self-feeling." The last element is critical cause the feeling of pride or shame is not simply the reflection of the self but the "imagined effect of this reflection upon another's mind" (Cooley 10184-185,Adams, Sydie p1). Cooley suggested that the meaning of "I" is grasped when the child becomes aware of "self-feeling" accompanying the use of I, me and my by other" and this awakens ones "own self-feeling already existing in and inarticulate form," and they "come to stand for self lacerative feeling or attitude, for self will and appropriation" (Cooley, 100,1,Adams,Sydie p.1). Society exists in and individuals mind because of interactions with many other individuals, so that "self and society are twin-born and the notion of a separate and independent ego is an illusion" (Cooley, 10 0,1,Adams,Sydie p1).

Intimate face-to-face association and cooperation characterize primary groups. Primary groups are primary in the sense that they give the individual the complete experience of social unity, and also in the sense that they do change in the same degree as more elaborate relations, but form a comparatively permanent source out of which the latter are ever springing. However they are not independent of the larger society, but to some extent reflect its spirit (Cooley 10 pp5-1,www.Pfeiffer.edu/~Iridener/DSS/Cooley?PRIMGRP.HTML). Cooley felt that these primary groups are fundamental in forming the social nature and ideals of the individual (Cooley 156, p). The most important spheres of these groups are the family, play group for children, and the neighborhood or community group of elders (Cooley 156, p4). These groups are the basis for which the individual develops and it also sets the morals that one must follow through out the various stages of life. Ideas of love, freedom, and justice also had their part in primary groups. Primary groups, however, "need to be watched and cherished with very special care" so they do not decay or disappear, because they are basis on which higher imaginations, "moral unity," and "brotherhood" are built (Cooley 10,Adams,Sydie p14). Cooley maintained that human nature is not something existing separately in the individual, but a group-nature or primary phase of society, a relatively simple and general condition of the social mind. It is something more than the mere instinct that is born in us �though that enters into it- and something less than the more elaborate development of ideas and sentiments that makes up institutions. It is nature that are developed and expressed in those simple face-to-face

groups that is somewhat alike in all societies. In these types of societies that human nature comes into existence. Man does not have human nature at birth; he cannot acquire it except through fellowship, and it decays in isolation (Cooley 10, pp5-1, www.pfeiffer.edu/~Iridener/DSS/Cooley/PRIMGRP.HTML).

Cooley saw caste, or rigid inequalities between groups in society, as perpetuated by three conditions "likeness or unlikeness in the constituent of the population; the rate of social change and the state of communication or enlightenment" (Cooley 1017,Adams,Sydie p.16). A more open and free society promotes divisions based on competition rather than heredity and marked a transition from caste to class society. (Adams, Sydie 001, p.16).

Cooley understood that the self and the acceptance of others led to primary groups, that in-turn help to develop a better understanding of the self. The relationship of the self and primary groups develop society and install the morals and a since of the "we-feeling." It was the we-feeling he wished to see prevail in society at large. The we-feeling he wished to see prevail in society at large. The we-feeling broke down caste and "wipes out conventional distinctions," leaving only those that was functional for the organic whole (Cooley 1561-1).

George Herbert Mead was born in South Hadley, MA on February 7, 186, and died in Chicago, Illinois, on April 6, 11. Mead entered Oberlin College and earned a Bachelors Degree. He earned a Masters Degree in Philosophy at Harvard University and lived with William James during this time. He later worked at the University of

Michigan and worked with and was influenced by Charles Horton Cooley, William James, and John Dewey which gives them some of the same views of the development of the self. Mead and Dewey moved to the University of Chicago where Mead taught mostly social psychology and took major roles in the time of Pragmatist movement in Chicago. Mead's major contribution to social psychology was his attempt to show how the human self arises in the process of social interaction, especially by way of symbolic interaction (www.utm.edu/research/iep/m/mead.htm).

The process of social interaction use symbolic communication whish is the use of signs, such as gestures, to convey meaning. When the gesture is more than a reflex action that stimulates a response in the other, it becomes a significant symbol. A significant symbol is a gesture that has a meaning behind it, such that the symbol "answers to the meaning in the experience of the first individual and also calls out the meaning in the second individual (Mead, 164a157,Adams,Sydie p1). Mead supports the view that an analysis of the various meanings of objects and situations depends finally on role taking and the use of significant symbols. Analysis requires a mind having a social component, which is constitutive and necessary to every individual mind (Mead, 18,p11). Meads illustration of a dog fight, in which each dog's action is a stimulus for the other dog; as the act is "responded to by the other dog; it in turn, undergoes change" (Mead 164a154,Adams,Sydie p1). However, conversations of gestures do not have to be significant gestures. Gestures become significant when there is attitude behind them (Adams, Sydie 001,p1). Therefore "A conversation of gestures consists simply

in continued readjustment of one individual to another" (Miller, 18,p10). Mead viewed the social self as a social object dependent on communication through symbols and gestures. Through such communication humans take part in social interaction, and this brings about actions and reactions by others, this view by others cause the self to develop. People taking the attitudes of others became known as the generalized other (Mead 164b5-84,Adams,Sydie p). The role taking of others develops in two stages the play stage and the game stage. The play stage involves the child taking the role of others, such as role of parents, it represents relatively simple role taking because one role at a time is played and the relationship between roles is not clearly understood (Adams,Sydie 001,p). The game stage deals with the ability to understand connections between roles. At this stage the child must "not only take the role of other, but must assume the various roles of all participants in the game, and govern his actions accordingly" (Mead, 164b85,Adams,Sydie p). In the game stage, the child learns to "function in the organized whole, and this tends to determine his relationship with the group to which he belongs"(Mead, 14160,Adams,Sydie p). The game stage is the ability of the person to take the role of the generalized other and developing the self emerges from these stages.

The self that emerges from taking the attitudes of others Mead is referred to as the "Me." The "Me" represents the attitudes of others that the self is aware of and to which the "I" responded (Mead, 164a0,Adams,Sydie p5). The "Me" contains the social knowledge of roles, structures, values, and beliefs and their implications for social action.

The "Me" represents self-control as the "expression of the 'me" against the expression of the 'I'" (Mead,164a8-,Adams,Sydie p5).

The full nature of these levels of "me" comes into proper relief only when we understand the meaning and function of the "I" (Natanson, 17 p16). The "I," is the creative, imaginative part of the self, which Mead believed is evident in artist (Adams, Sydie 001,p5). Mead understood the "I" as a transcendent act in which the unique self, the person, adds to or goes beyond traditional or typical behavior. In this sense, the contribution of the "I" to the individuals behavior is that of an emergent, novel quality that transcends the "me." The "I" also "both calls out the 'me' and responds to it" (Natanson, 17,p16).

Both "I" and "me" relate necessarily to social experience without the common-sense world of other persons with whom the individual interacts, without "society" with its economic, moral, and cultural organization, it is not meaningful to speak of a "self," let alone the special aspect of the self termed the "I" and "me" (Natanson, 17,p16). The individual takes the attitude of the "me" or the attitude of "I" according to the situations in which one finds themselves (www.utm.edu/research/iep/m/mead/htm). The "I" and the "me" is a dynamic relationship that involves the constant interaction of both to develop the self. The process of determining the self puts society in a constant changing atmosphere, described as social change.

The constant interaction of the "I," "me," and social change, Mead felt, is a dialectical relation between individuals and society and the self emerges out of these

interactions. For Mead society is the product of reflexive individuals' taking account of others, and mind and self can only develop in society (Adams, Sydie 001,p7). Society then is based on social acts, which the occasion or stimulus which sets free impulses is found in the character or conduct of a living form that belongs to the proper environment of the living form that whose impulse it is (Natanson,17,p18).

Cooley and Mead shared a lot of views and have some of the same ideas. This could be due to the fact that they were colleagues at the University of Michigan between 181 and 18. Both were also influenced by William James and John Dewey, as well as Darwin and his developments. Mead was influenced by Cooley's ideas on the interactive, communicative nature of society, and the ideas that the self was created from such interactions, beginning in attachment to small, primary groups, through which links to larger social structures are established (Adams,Sydie 001,p1). Mead and Cooley were both concerned with the self, but also with the solutions to the many social problems that hand resulted form industrialization, urbanization, and mass immigration to the United States. Both felt that scientific sociology is the answer to the problems that challenge a democratic society (Adams, Sydie 001, p10). Cooley and Mead's views of the self had and still has great impacts on how we develop in society today, it also set the stage for the development of symbolic interactions, which is the explanation of interactions through the use of symbols for communication. Both also stressed the need to preserve and enlarge democratic freedoms. Mead and Cooley believed that the success of reform efforts depends on the use of scientific methods, with the sociologist having great contributions to make (Adams, Sydie 001, p). With both theorist coming

through at the same time and having the same Pragmatic influence, one can see why there contributions to the sociological world have similarities.

Bibliography

Adams,Bert N. & Sydie, R.A. (001)

Sociological Theory

Thousand Oaks, California, Pine Forge Press

Cooley, Charles H. (156)

Social Organizations

Glencoe, Illinois, The Free Press

Cooley, Charles H. (10)

Human Nature and Social Order "The Looking Glass

Self," New York Scribner's Sons

www.Pfeiffer.edu/~Iridener/DSS/Cooley/LKGLSSLF.HTML

Cooley, Charles H. (10)

Social Organizations "A Study of the Larger Mind"

New York Scribner's Sons

www.Pfeiffer.edu/~Iridener/DSS/Cooley/PRIMGRP.HTML

Miller, David L. �Edited by (18)

The Individual and the Social Self

Chicago, The University of Chicago Press

Mitchell, William C. (167)

Sociological Analysis and Politics

Engelwood Cliffs, N.J., Prentice Hall, Inc.

The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy

George Herbert Mead

www.utm.edu/research/iep/m/mead.htm

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